李笑来
英文的比较句结构相对中文稍微复杂一些，但更为精确一些。国内的语法书从来就没有任何一本把比较句讲得足够清楚。当年我教写作的时候，这是几乎所有学生都“倍感超值”的一小时内容……
一提到比较句，我们马上能够想到的当然是
- more/less… than…
- as… as
首先要搞清楚的是词性问题。“more/less” 以及 “as… as” 中的第一个 “as” 是副词，那 “than” 和 “as… as” 中的第二个 “as” 是什么词性呢？在书面比较句中，它们的词性是 “并列连词”（conj.）。
口语中，我们可以直接说“A is more beautiful than B.”
这时候，“than” 可以被理解为介词，而后面接的是代词的宾格（“B”作介词“than”的宾语）。
但是，同样意思的书面比较句应该这么写：
A is more beautiful than B is.
其实这句话是两个句子并列之后组成的：
- A is beautiful.
- B is beautiful.
而后并列连词 “than” 放在 “B” 之前，副词 “more” 放在第一句话的 “beautiful” 之前，于是，我们得到这样一个句子：
A is more beautiful than B is beautiful.
又由于并列的两个句子中，第二个句子可以省略与第一个句子相同的部分，于是，最后一个“beautiful”被省略掉，最终就得到了我们刚刚看到的那个句子：
A is more beautiful than B is
beautiful. => A is more beautiful than B is.
当然，如果把第二个句子的 “is” 也省略掉，形式上来看就与口语中的表达法没有区别；但显然，在书面比较句中，“B” 是主格而不是宾格。
为什么要写成 “A is more beautiful than B is.” 呢？在上一节中，为了避免节外生枝，用 “A” 和 “B” 替代了比较双方，因为 “B” 的主格是 “B”，宾格还是 “B”，没有区别。
如果我们要表示 “她比我更漂亮” 的话，那么这个比较句将由两个句子并列构成：
- She is beautiful.
- I am beautiful.
由并列连词 “than” 并列起来之后变成：
She is more beautiful than I am
beautiful.
并列句中能够省略的是相同的部分，而第二个句子的系动词是 “am”，与第一个句子的系动词 “is” 是不同的，不能省略。
另外一个例子可以用来说明 “第二个句子中的谓语动词建议不要省略” 是为了避免歧义。
比如说，我想表达这样一个意思的句子：我喜欢她；你也喜欢她；可是我比你更喜欢她……
- I like her.
- You like her.
- => I like her more than you like her.
而后把相同的部分全都去掉，就变成：
- I like her more than you.
歧义就出现了，因为 “you” 既可能是主格也可能是宾格。不要以为 “you” 特殊，事实上，英文中所有的实义名词都是 “主格” 与 “宾格” 相同的。
那应该怎么办呢？应该写成这样：
I like her more than you
like. => I like her more than you do.
以下是三个 TOEFL 阅读文章中出现过的几个例子：
- Ichthyosaurs had a higher chance of being preserved than did terrestrial creatures because, as marine animals, they tended to live in environments less subject to erosion.
- The common kestrel nests in larger flocks than does the lesser kestrel.
- This immunity has been followed by a relaxation of the defenses, and kittiwakes do not react to predators nearly as fiercely as do ground-nesting gulls.
我们可以说 “苹果比桔子好吃”，但很难比较 “苹果” 与 “袜子”。如果两个对象不属于同一范畴，即便他们（它们）拥有相同的属性，比较起来也没有意义，我们没多大可能说（尽管确实有很小的可能）：
He is bigger than a chair. （尽管人有大小，椅子也有大小……）
不过，英文的比较句允许比较同一事物的两种不同的属性。既然是同一事物，当然属于同一范畴；而另外一方面我们无法比较（也没必要）“同一事物的同一属性”：
My eyes are bigger than my eyes. （这样的句子很无聊。）
以下是一个在几乎所有的语法书中都可以找得到的句子：
A is as smart as beautiful.
先看看这句话是怎么 “炮制” 出来的：
- A is smart.
- A is beautiful.
- => A is as smart as A is beautiful. 当然这句话还可以写成：A is as smart as she is beautiful. （代词替换）
这句话通常被错误地翻译为 “A 既漂亮又聪明”。
其实这句话本身并没有说明 A 究竟有多么聪明，说的只是 “A 聪明的程度与她漂亮的程度一样”。
注意：在不知道 A 有多么漂亮之前，我们仅通过这个句子没办法确定 A 有多么聪明。
- 如果前文中已经告诉我们 A 非常漂亮，那么我们可以通过这个句子得知：“A（那么漂亮，竟然也）那么聪明！”（有人建议把“竟然也”改为“同时也”）
- 如果前文中提供的信息告诉我们 A 的漂亮程度只不过是“相貌平平”，那么这个句子告诉我们的是 “A（其实）智商平平”。
所以说，“A is as smart as beautiful.” 翻译成：“她有多漂亮就有多聪明” 应该更准确一些。
比较句中的第二个句子所提供的应该是 “已知信息”（Known Information），而第一个句子提供的是“新的信息”（New Information）。
如果有人突然说，“李笑来现在聪明多了”——那他的言外之意是 “过去李笑来是个大笨蛋。”（有人建议吧“是个大笨蛋”改成“没这么聪明”。）
根据以上讲解，进一步，“A is as stupid as beautiful.” 的意思应该是：“A 愚蠢的程度与她漂亮的程度一样”。
有了以上的认识，类似以下的句子（这是一道GRE ISSUE作文题目）也很容易理解：
Competition is ultimately more beneficial than detrimental to society.
现在，我想表达这样的想法：计算机（操作起来）很复杂，计算机也很有用，可是（我想抱怨）计算机并不像它那么复杂地那么有用……（要是复杂程度和有用的程度一致，我们作为用户有时也就可能认了—— 凡事儿都有代价么；但是，它那么复杂，却没那么有用的时候，我们就变得很不耐烦了——比如 Microsoft 的操作系统就是很令人恼火的东西……）
- Computers are useful.
- Computers are complex.
- => (However,) Computers are not as useful as complex. (这句话还可以写成：Computers are not as useful as they are complex.）
现在，再试比较以下几个句子对计算机的抱怨的程度：
- Computers are not as useful as complex.
- Computers are (much) less useful than complex.
- Computers are (much) more useless than complex.
显然，第三个句子能表达最强程度的抱怨。注意，前两个句子比较的是 “useful” 和 “complex”，而第三个句子比较的是 “useless” 和 “complex”。
任何思想都有很多种表达方法，其中总是至少有一种表达方法比其他方法更加有效更加准确。把可能的表达方法都罗列出来，仔细甄别，最终选出那个最有效、最准确的表达方法的过程，其实就是传说中的 “炼句” 了。
一提到 “more/less… than” 或者 “as… as”，我们直接想到的是形容词与副词的比较级与最高级。可是，我们有的时候需要比较 “名词属性”。比如这个句子：
He is more of a friend than a father.
这句话是如何“炮制”出来的呢？
- He is a friend.
- He is a father.
- => He is more a friend than he is a father.
可是，“more” 是副词；副词什么时候可以修饰名词呢？——错的时候。
副词是不能修饰名词的。那怎么办呢？填一个 “of” 进来。“of” 后面接上一个名词所构成的介词词组相当与那个名词词义的形容词词性（真拗口），所以，以下两个句子是等价的：
- It is very important.
- It is of great importance.
于是，填进去一个 “of” 之后：
- He is more a friend than
he isa father.- => He is more of a friend than a father.
这句话的意思是说：“他是个好父亲，更是个好朋友。” 这其中的 “好”，应该是在前文中已经描述过的（比较句是依赖上下文的——重点6）。
所以，如果我想表达“他是个多好的父亲，他就是个多好的朋友”，那么就应该写成：
He is as much of a friend as a father.
现在我们可以通通透透地理解下面这个所谓的“难句”了——这是一个托福阅读中出现的句子，难倒过不少人：
Life’s transition from the sea to the land was perhaps as much of an evolutionary challenge as was the genesis of life.
让我们逆向拆解一下这句话的“炮制”过程（重点1）：
- Life’s transition from the sea to the land was an evolutionary challenge.
- The genesis of life was an evolutionary challenge.
- => Life’s transition from the sea to the land was as an evolutionary challenge as the genesis of life was an evolutionary challenge.
加上一个程度副词 “perhaps”：
=> Life’s transition from the sea to the land was perhaps as an evolutionary challenge as the genesis of life was an evolutionary challenge.
因为比较的是名词属性，“as” 后面加上 “much of”（重点7）
=> Life’s transition from the sea to the land was perhaps as much of an evolutionary challenge as the genesis of life was an evolutionary challenge.
第二个句子中重复的部分省略掉，谓语动词不省略（重点2）
=> Life’s transition from the sea to the land was perhaps as much of an evolutionary challenge as the genesis of life was
an evolutionary challenge.
第二个句子的谓语动词倒装（重点4），最终得到我们之前看过的句子：
=> Life’s transition from the sea to the land was perhaps as much of an evolutionary challenge as was the genesis of life.
这句话的意思是说，“（如果说）生命的起源是个进化挑战（的话），（那么）生命从海洋到陆地的演变是个更大程度的进化挑战。”
由于比较句中的第二个句子（重点1）是参照系（重点6），所以，在读到这个句子之前，肯定有笔墨描述 “The genesis of life was an evolutionary challenge.”，而在那篇文章中，这个比较句是第三句话：
Life originated in the early seas less than a billion years after the Earth was formed. Yet another three billion years were to pass before the first plants and animals appeared on the continents. Life’s transition from the sea to the land was perhaps as much of an evolutionary challenge as was the genesis of life.
再看一个 GRE ISSUE 作文题目中的句子：
When we concern ourselves with the study of history, we become storytellers. Because we can never know the past directly but must construct it by interpreting evidence, exploring history is more of a creative enterprise than it is an objective pursuit. All historians are storytellers.
现在能够完全明以下句子是如何构成的、以及这句话究竟是什么意思了吧？
“… exploring history is more of a creative enterprise than it is an objective pursuit.”
GRE ISSUE 作文题库里还有这样一个句子：
“In most societies, competition generally has more of a negative than a positive effect.”
这个句子是怎么构成的呢？
- Competition has a negative effect.
- Competition has a positive effect.
- => Competition has more a negative effect than competition has a positive effect.
- => Competition has more of a negative effect than
competition hasa positive effect.
现在，还有两个“effect”是重复的，于是，这句话最终可以有两个版本：
- Competition has more of a negative effect than a positive one. （代词替换）
- Competition has more of a negative than a positive effect. （第一个“effect”省略掉）
这两个版本都是正确的，通常推荐使用第二个版本——因为它更简洁。
TOEFL 作文题目中有这样一道题：
It has been said, “Not everything that is learned is contained in books.” Compare and contrast knowledge gained from experience with knowledge gained from books. In your opinion, which source is more important? Why?
这道题并不像看起来那么简单。如若没有人提醒，很多人考生会在作文中去比较“书本”与“经验”——不知不觉作文就写得越来越乱。为什么呢？因为“书本”与“经验”并不属于同一范畴（重点5），很难进行有意义的比较。
其实，题目中要求的是比较 (A) “从书本中获得的知识” 与 (B) “从经验中获得的知识”——都是 “知识”，于是属于同一范畴，于是可以做这样的比较：
- 从书本中获得的知识要比从经验中获得的知识更广博。
或者
- 从经验中获得的知识要比从书本中获得的知识更深入。
这两句话应该怎么写呢？“文绉绉”的书面形式应该写成什么样呢？读者不妨先尝试一下。我们先讲点别的东西，一会儿回头再讲这个句子。
有的时候我们需要比较的不是 A 和 B，而是属于 A 的一个事物与属于 B 的一个事物。也就是说，我们要比较的是 “A’s X” 和 “B’s X”。比较句是两个句子构成的，于是，最终的比较句大抵上应该含有以下结构：
A’s X… than/as B’s X…
“文绉绉” 的书面语讲究 “避免重复”，甚至会 “避免重复结构”。“A’s X” 和 “B’s X” 就是结构上的重复。而英文中的所属格有两种表示方式，“A’s X”和“X of A”、“B’s X”和“X of B”。于是，书面比较句的第一个句子使用 “A’s X” 和 “X of A” 中的任何一个，而第二个句子中往往使用 “X of B” 的形式：
A’s X… than/as X of B…
可是，“X”还是重复了，那怎么办呢？换成代词，比如，“that”。
“他的眼睛比我的眼睛大”，口语中直接说“His eyes are bigger than mine.”就完事儿了；“文绉绉”一点的书面语要写成：
His eyes are bigger than those of mine.
（注意，要用“those”而不是“that”，因为“我”不是独眼龙。）
以下是几个托福阅读文章中的句子：
- Baskets produced by other Native Americans were less varied in design than those of the Pomo people.
- Lavoisier’s interpretation was more reasonable and straightforward than that of the phlogiston theorists.
- This amount of change that has occurred in fossil bone, even in bone as old as that of dinosaurs, is often remarkably small.
事实上，除了“than/as”之外，还有很多比较结构，都可以使用这种“所属格代词结构替换”：
same as:The values of the news media are the same as those of the elite, and they badly want to be viewed by the elites as acceptable.
similar to: Their composition is thought to be similar to that of Earth’s iron core, and indeed they might have once made up the core of a large planetoid that disintegrated long ago.
differ from:How did the work of American carvers in 1776 differ from that of contemporary sculptors?
prefer to:They prefer the temperature and climate of the canopy to that of other environments.
favor over:Rather, the denominator ideology is to favor businesses’ interests over those of individuals.
superior/inferior to:The position of the women, lie says, is miserably inferior to that of English and American working women, and the hours of work of English people a whole age ahead of those of their Continental brethren.
parallel to: The author discusses the development of flight in birds as resulting from a separate but parallel development process to that of pterosaurs. …
现在，让我们回到前面提到句子：
从书本中获得的知识要比从经验中获得的知识更广博。
之前大多数人会把这个句子写成：
Knowledge gained from books is broader than knowledge gained from experience.
这样写当然完全没错，不过，如果应用一下刚刚讲解过的内容，那么这句话可以写成：
Knowledge gained from books is broader than that gained from experience.
你看，不一定非得是 “... of ...” 的结构，哪怕是定语后置的结构也一样。
应用重点2，书面比较句第二个句子中的谓语动词建议不要省略，那么：
Knowledge gained from books is broader than that gained from experience is.
再应用重点4， 第二个句子的谓语动词可以倒装，那么：
Knowledge gained from books is broader than is that gained from experience.
再给提供两个例子：
- In particular, the responses of less-educated individuals are far more sensitive to issue framing than are those of highly educated individuals.
- “Thus,” Darwin concludes in the last sentence of the book, “we are brought face to face with a difficulty as insoluble as is that of free will and predestination.”
如果我们想表达：
“今天的学生实际上并不比过去的学生更聪明。”（但由于有了计算机的帮助，今天的学生懂得比过去的学生更多。）
这句话在托福作文中可以用得到：
Do you agree or disagree with the following statement? With the help of technology, students nowadays can learn more information and learn it more quickly. Use specific reasons and examples to support your answer.）
大多数人原本的表达可能是这样的：
Students nowadays are in fact not smarter than students of the past.
应用之前的各个重点，现在读者可以炮制出：
Students nowadays are in fact not smarter than were those of the past.
英文当中有一个词，本质上是“代词”，却在任何词典或者语法书中都没有被当作代词处理过，这个单词是：counterpart。
之前的句子“今天的学生实际上并不比过去的学生更聪明。”还可以这样写：
Students nowadays are in fact not smarter than were their counterparts of the past.
不妨再补充两个使用“counterpart”的例句：
- The idea that antioxidant supplements are the same as their counterparts that are naturally present in food is a myth.
- In international comparison, Swiss labor force is cheaper than its counterpart in neighboring countries.
- 书面比较句其实是一种特殊的并列句。
- 书面比较句第二个句子中的谓语动词建议不要省略。
- 第二个句子中的谓语动词如果不是系动词，则可以使用“do”的恰当时态替换。
- 第二个句子的谓语动词可以倒装。
- 一般来说，相互比较的两个对象应该 1) 属于同一范畴；2) 拥有相同属性。
- 比较句的意义依赖上下文；比较句中的第二个句子是“参照系”。
- 比较名词属性的时候，“more”后面要加上一个“of”；比较名词属性的时候，“as”后面要加上“much of”。
- 比较句中的第二个所属格往往表示为“that/those of …”的形式。
- counterpart 本质上来看是“比较句中的代词”。