[LeakScope] 24 Android lifecycle/memory violations detected

[MuhammadTehamsibAliTashfeen]

LeakScope: Android Lifecycle & Memory Leak Violations

About this report: This issue was automatically generated by LeakScope, a static analysis tool for Android lifecycle violations and memory leaks built on the Soot framework. This is part of an ongoing academic research study targeting ICSE 2027. No immediate action is required — we would greatly appreciate your feedback on whether these findings are accurate.

Summary

LeakScope detected 24 potential issue(s) across 4 detector type(s):

Severity	Count
🔴 High	8
🟡 Medium	3
🟢 Low (improvement opportunity)	13

Detector	Count	Severity	Description
StateHolderLeak	1	🔴 High	Static field holds UI/Context reference across configuration changes
ThreadedUIReference	7	🔴 High	Worker thread captures Activity/Fragment/View reference
ServiceResourceManagementIssueDetector	3	🟡 Medium	Service may never stop — missing stopSelf() call
ViewBindingOpportunity	13	🟢 Low	Manual findViewById() calls — ViewBinding migration opportunity

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Detailed Findings

🔴 StateHolderLeak

Static field holds UI/Context reference across configuration changes

Finding #1 — ToggleWidgetOldActivity

Potential State Holder Memory Leak Detected
Class: dev.ukanth.ufirewall.widget.ToggleWidgetOldActivity
Issue: Scenario 2: Static field 'defaultButton' of type 'android.widget.Button' in Activity/Fragment directly holds a UI reference across rotations. Old UI cannot be garbage collected.
Fix: Use instance field instead. Set to null in onDestroy().

Potential State Holder Memory Leak Detected
Class: dev.ukanth.ufirewall.widget.ToggleWidgetOldActivity
Issue: Scenario 2: Static field 'disableButton' of type 'android.widget.Button' in Activity/Fragment directly holds a UI reference across rotations. Old UI cannot be garbage collected.
Fix: Use instance field instead. Set to null in onDestroy().

Potential State Holder Memory Leak Detected
Class: dev.ukanth.ufirewall.widget.ToggleWidgetOldActivity
Issue: Scenario 2: Static field 'enableButton' of type 'android.widget.Button' in Activity/Fragment directly holds a UI reference across rotations. Old UI cannot be garbage collected.
Fix: Use inst
… (truncated for brevity)

🔴 ThreadedUIReference

Worker thread captures Activity/Fragment/View reference

Finding #2 — ExpPreferenceFragment\n// (Full source code omitted for brevity)\n"

{
  "text_input": "package dev.ukanth.ufirewall.preferences;\n\n// Class: dev.ukanth.ufirewall.preferences.ExpPreferenceFragment\n// (Full source code omitted for brevity)\n",
  "output": "Yes",
  "project": "ufirewall",
  "explanation": "Scenario 1: Worker thread holds UI object reference\nClass: dev.ukanth.ufirewall.preferences.ExpPreferenceFragment\nMethod: void deleteFiles(android.content.Context,boolean)\nStatement: $r4 \u003d new java.lang.Thread\nCaptured UI objects:\n  - r0 : dev.ukanth.ufirewall.preferences.ExpPreferenceFragment\nRisk: UI object will be kept in memory until thread completes\nFix: Use WeakReference or avoid passing UI objects to worker threads\n"
}
{
  "text_input": "package dev.ukanth.ufirewall.preferences;\n\n// Class: dev.ukanth.ufirewall.preferences.ExpPreferenceFragment\n// (Full source code omitted for brevity)\n",
  "output": "Yes",
  "project": "ufirewall",
  "explanation": "Scenario 1: Worker thread holds UI object reference\nClass: dev.ukanth.ufirewal
… (truncated for brevity)

Finding #3 — RulesActivity

Scenario 1: Worker thread holds UI object reference
Class: dev.ukanth.ufirewall.activity.RulesActivity
Method: void appendSystemInfo(android.content.Context)
Statement: $r7 = new dev.ukanth.ufirewall.activity.RulesActivity$1
Captured UI objects:
  - r0 : dev.ukanth.ufirewall.activity.RulesActivity
Risk: UI object will be kept in memory until thread completes
Fix: Use WeakReference or avoid passing UI objects to worker threads

Finding #4 — LogDetailActivity\n// (Full source code omitted for brevity)\n"

{
  "text_input": "package dev.ukanth.ufirewall.activity;\n\n// Class: dev.ukanth.ufirewall.activity.LogDetailActivity\n// (Full source code omitted for brevity)\n",
  "output": "Yes",
  "project": "ufirewall",
  "explanation": "Scenario 1: Worker thread holds UI object reference\nClass: dev.ukanth.ufirewall.activity.LogDetailActivity\nMethod: boolean onContextItemSelected(android.view.MenuItem)\nStatement: $r10 \u003d new dev.ukanth.ufirewall.util.LogNetUtil$NetTask\nCaptured UI objects:\n  - r0 : dev.ukanth.ufirewall.activity.LogDetailActivity\nRisk: UI object will be kept in memory until thread completes\nFix: Use WeakReference or avoid passing UI objects to worker threads\n"
}
{
  "text_input": "package dev.ukanth.ufirewall.activity;\n\n// Class: dev.ukanth.ufirewall.activity.LogDetailActivity\n// (Full source code omitted for brevity)\n",
  "output": "Yes",
  "project": "ufirewall",
  "explanation": "Scenario 1: Worker thread holds UI object reference\nClass: dev.ukanth.ufirewall.
… (truncated for brevity)

Finding #5 — LogActivity\n// (Full source code omitted for brevity)\n"

{
  "text_input": "package dev.ukanth.ufirewall.activity;\n\n// Class: dev.ukanth.ufirewall.activity.LogActivity\n// (Full source code omitted for brevity)\n",
  "output": "Yes",
  "project": "ufirewall",
  "explanation": "Scenario 1: Worker thread holds UI object reference\nClass: dev.ukanth.ufirewall.activity.LogActivity\nMethod: void onCreate(android.os.Bundle)\nStatement: r14 \u003d new dev.ukanth.ufirewall.activity.LogActivity$CollectLog\nCaptured UI objects:\n  - r0 : dev.ukanth.ufirewall.activity.LogActivity\nRisk: UI object will be kept in memory until thread completes\nFix: Use WeakReference or avoid passing UI objects to worker threads\n"
}
{
  "text_input": "package dev.ukanth.ufirewall.activity;\n\n// Class: dev.ukanth.ufirewall.activity.LogActivity\n// (Full source code omitted for brevity)\n",
  "output": "Yes",
  "project": "ufirewall",
  "explanation": "Scenario 1: Worker thread holds UI object reference\nClass: dev.ukanth.ufirewall.activity.LogActivity\nMethod: void on
… (truncated for brevity)

Finding #6 — MainActivity

Scenario 1: Worker thread holds UI object reference
Class: dev.ukanth.ufirewall.MainActivity
Method: void onCreate(android.os.Bundle)
Statement: $r10 = new dev.ukanth.ufirewall.MainActivity$RootCheck
Captured UI objects:
  - r0 : dev.ukanth.ufirewall.MainActivity
Risk: UI object will be kept in memory until thread completes
Fix: Use WeakReference or avoid passing UI objects to worker threads

Finding #7 — ToggleWidgetActivity

Scenario 1: Worker thread holds UI object reference
Class: dev.ukanth.ufirewall.widget.ToggleWidgetActivity
Method: void invokeAction()
Statement: $r2 = new dev.ukanth.ufirewall.widget.ToggleWidgetActivity$2
Captured UI objects:
  - r0 : dev.ukanth.ufirewall.widget.ToggleWidgetActivity
Risk: UI object will be kept in memory until thread completes
Fix: Use WeakReference or avoid passing UI objects to worker threads

Finding #8 — ToggleWidgetOldActivity\n// (Full source code omitted for brevity)\n"

{
  "text_input": "package dev.ukanth.ufirewall.widget;\n\n// Class: dev.ukanth.ufirewall.widget.ToggleWidgetOldActivity\n// (Full source code omitted for brevity)\n",
  "output": "Yes",
  "project": "ufirewall",
  "explanation": "Scenario 1: Worker thread holds UI object reference\nClass: dev.ukanth.ufirewall.widget.ToggleWidgetOldActivity\nMethod: void runProfile(java.lang.String)\nStatement: $r4 \u003d new dev.ukanth.ufirewall.widget.ToggleWidgetOldActivity$2\nCaptured UI objects:\n  - r0 : dev.ukanth.ufirewall.widget.ToggleWidgetOldActivity\nRisk: UI object will be kept in memory until thread completes\nFix: Use WeakReference or avoid passing UI objects to worker threads\n"
}
{
  "text_input": "package dev.ukanth.ufirewall.widget;\n\n// Class: dev.ukanth.ufirewall.widget.ToggleWidgetOldActivity\n// (Full source code omitted for brevity)\n",
  "output": "Yes",
  "project": "ufirewall",
  "explanation": "Scenario 1: Worker thread holds UI object reference\nClass: dev.ukanth.ufirewall
… (truncated for brevity)

🟡 ServiceResourceManagementIssueDetector

Service may never stop — missing stopSelf() call

Finding #9 — RootShellService

⚠� Service may never stop. Consider calling stopSelf() when work is complete.
  Class: dev.ukanth.ufirewall.service.RootShellService
  Method: onStartCommand

Finding #10 — RootShellService2

⚠� Service may never stop. Consider calling stopSelf() when work is complete.
  Class: dev.ukanth.ufirewall.service.RootShellService2
  Method: onStartCommand

Finding #11 — FirewallService

⚠� Service may never stop. Consider calling stopSelf() when work is complete.
  Class: dev.ukanth.ufirewall.service.FirewallService
  Method: onStartCommand
⚠� Foreground service started but never removed (missing stopForeground() / stopSelf()).
  Class: dev.ukanth.ufirewall.service.FirewallService
  Method: N/A

🟢 ViewBindingOpportunity

Manual findViewById() calls — ViewBinding migration opportunity

Finding #12 — PreferencesActivity

View Binding Migration Opportunity
Class: dev.ukanth.ufirewall.preferences.PreferencesActivity
Type: Activity
Current Pattern: Manual view lookup
findViewById() Calls:
  • findViewById in prepareLayout
  • findViewById in prepareLayout
Benefits of View Binding:
- Eliminates boilerplate findViewById() calls
- Compile-time type safety for view references
- Reduced null pointer exceptions
- Cleaner, more maintainable code
Note: This is a code modernization suggestion, not a memory leak

Finding #13 — AppDetailActivity

View Binding Migration Opportunity
Class: dev.ukanth.ufirewall.activity.AppDetailActivity
Type: Activity
Current Pattern: Manual view lookup
findViewById() Calls:
  • findViewById in onCreate
  • findViewById in onCreate
  • findViewById in onCreate
  • findViewById in onCreate
  • findViewById in onCreate
  • findViewById in onCreate
  • findViewById in onCreate
  • findViewById in onCreate
Benefits of View Binding:
- Eliminates boilerplate findViewById() calls
- Compile-time type safety for view references
- Reduced null pointer exceptions
- Cleaner, more maintainable code
Note: This is a code modernization suggestion, not a memory leak

Finding #14 — LogDetailActivity

View Binding Migration Opportunity
Class: dev.ukanth.ufirewall.activity.LogDetailActivity
Type: Activity
Current Pattern: Manual view lookup
findViewById() Calls:
  • findViewById in onCreate
  • findViewById in onCreate
  • findViewById in onCreate
  • findViewById in onCreate
Benefits of View Binding:
- Eliminates boilerplate findViewById() calls
- Compile-time type safety for view references
- Reduced null pointer exceptions
- Cleaner, more maintainable code
Note: This is a code modernization suggestion, not a memory leak

Finding #15 — HelpActivity

View Binding Migration Opportunity
Class: dev.ukanth.ufirewall.activity.HelpActivity
Type: Activity
Current Pattern: Manual view lookup
findViewById() Calls:
  • findViewById in onCreate
  • findViewById in onCreate
  • findViewById in onCreate
Benefits of View Binding:
- Eliminates boilerplate findViewById() calls
- Compile-time type safety for view references
- Reduced null pointer exceptions
- Cleaner, more maintainable code
Note: This is a code modernization suggestion, not a memory leak

Finding #16 — CustomScriptActivity

View Binding Migration Opportunity
Class: dev.ukanth.ufirewall.activity.CustomScriptActivity
Type: Activity
Current Pattern: Manual view lookup
findViewById() Calls:
  • findViewById in onCreate
  • findViewById in onCreate
  • findViewById in onCreate
  • findViewById in onCreate
  • findViewById in onCreate
  • findViewById in onCreate
Benefits of View Binding:
- Eliminates boilerplate findViewById() calls
- Compile-time type safety for view references
- Reduced null pointer exceptions
- Cleaner, more maintainable code
Note: This is a code modernization suggestion, not a memory leak

Finding #17 — ProfileActivity

View Binding Migration Opportunity
Class: dev.ukanth.ufirewall.activity.ProfileActivity
Type: Activity
Current Pattern: Manual view lookup
findViewById() Calls:
  • findViewById in onCreate
  • findViewById in onCreate
  • findViewById in onCreateContextMenu
Benefits of View Binding:
- Eliminates boilerplate findViewById() calls
- Compile-time type safety for view references
- Reduced null pointer exceptions
- Cleaner, more maintainable code
Note: This is a code modernization suggestion, not a memory leak

Finding #18 — LogActivity

View Binding Migration Opportunity
Class: dev.ukanth.ufirewall.activity.LogActivity
Type: Activity
Current Pattern: Manual view lookup
findViewById() Calls:
  • findViewById in onCreate
  • findViewById in onCreate
  • findViewById in onCreate
  • findViewById in onCreate
Benefits of View Binding:
- Eliminates boilerplate findViewById() calls
- Compile-time type safety for view references
- Reduced null pointer exceptions
- Cleaner, more maintainable code
Note: This is a code modernization suggestion, not a memory leak

Finding #19 — CustomRulesActivity

View Binding Migration Opportunity
Class: dev.ukanth.ufirewall.activity.CustomRulesActivity
Type: Activity
Current Pattern: Manual view lookup
findViewById() Calls:
  • findViewById in onCreate
  • findViewById in onCreate
Benefits of View Binding:
- Eliminates boilerplate findViewById() calls
- Compile-time type safety for view references
- Reduced null pointer exceptions
- Cleaner, more maintainable code
Note: This is a code modernization suggestion, not a memory leak

Finding #20 — DataDumpActivity

View Binding Migration Opportunity
Class: dev.ukanth.ufirewall.activity.DataDumpActivity
Type: Activity
Current Pattern: Manual view lookup
findViewById() Calls:
  • findViewById in copy
  • findViewById in lambda$setData$0
  • findViewById in onCreate
  • findViewById in onCreate
Benefits of View Binding:
- Eliminates boilerplate findViewById() calls
- Compile-time type safety for view references
- Reduced null pointer exceptions
- Cleaner, more maintainable code
Note: This is a code modernization suggestion, not a memory leak

Finding #21 — MainActivity

View Binding Migration Opportunity
Class: dev.ukanth.ufirewall.MainActivity
Type: Activity
Current Pattern: Manual view lookup
findViewById() Calls:
  • findViewById in addColumns
  • findViewById in clearAll
  • findViewById in copyColumns
  • findViewById in hideColumns
  • findViewById in reloadPreferences
  • findViewById in reloadPreferences
  • findViewById in reloadPreferences
  • findViewById in reloadPreferences
  • findViewById in reloadPreferences
  • findViewById in reloadPreferences
  • findViewById in reloadPreferences
  • findViewById in reloadPreferences
  • findViewById in reloadPreferences
  • findViewById in search
  • findViewById in selectAll3G
  • findViewById in selectAllLAN
  • findViewById in selectAllRoam
  • findViewById in selectAllTor
  • findViewById in selectAllVPN
  • findViewById in selectAllWifi
  • findViewById in selectAlltether
  • findViewById in selectFilterGroup
  • findViewById in selectRevert
  • 
… (truncated for brevity)

Finding #22 — ToggleWidgetActivity

View Binding Migration Opportunity
Class: dev.ukanth.ufirewall.widget.ToggleWidgetActivity
Type: Activity
Current Pattern: Manual view lookup
findViewById() Calls:
  • findViewById in onCreate
Benefits of View Binding:
- Eliminates boilerplate findViewById() calls
- Compile-time type safety for view references
- Reduced null pointer exceptions
- Cleaner, more maintainable code
Note: This is a code modernization suggestion, not a memory leak

Finding #23 — ToggleWidgetOldActivity

View Binding Migration Opportunity
Class: dev.ukanth.ufirewall.widget.ToggleWidgetOldActivity
Type: Activity
Current Pattern: Manual view lookup
findViewById() Calls:
  • findViewById in onCreate
  • findViewById in onCreate
  • findViewById in onCreate
  • findViewById in onCreate
  • findViewById in onCreate
  • findViewById in onCreate
Benefits of View Binding:
- Eliminates boilerplate findViewById() calls
- Compile-time type safety for view references
- Reduced null pointer exceptions
- Cleaner, more maintainable code
Note: This is a code modernization suggestion, not a memory leak

Finding #24 — LocaleEdit

View Binding Migration Opportunity
Class: dev.ukanth.ufirewall.plugin.LocaleEdit
Type: Activity
Current Pattern: Manual view lookup
findViewById() Calls:
  • findViewById in finish
  • findViewById in finish
  • findViewById in onCreate
  • findViewById in onCreate
  • findViewById in onCreate
  • findViewById in onCreate
  • findViewById in onCreate
  • findViewById in onCreate
  • findViewById in onCreate
  • findViewById in onCreate
  • findViewById in onCreate
  • findViewById in onCreate
  • findViewById in onCreate
  • findViewById in onCreate
  • findViewById in onCreate
  • findViewById in onCreate
Benefits of View Binding:
- Eliminates boilerplate findViewById() calls
- Compile-time type safety for view references
- Reduced null pointer exceptions
- Cleaner, more maintainable code
Note: This is a code modernization suggestion, not a memory leak

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• If a finding is a true positive: consider applying the recommended fix and closing this issue.
• If a finding is a false positive: please leave a comment explaining why — your feedback directly improves our research.
• If you have questions: reply here or open a discussion.

This report was generated by LeakScope as part of the ICSE 2027 research artifact. Tool analyzes compiled APKs using Soot static analysis on afwall.