GH-34535: [C++] Move ChunkResolver to the public API

[anjakefala]

Rationale for this change

Adopting #40226.

The creation and return of a shared_ptr does result in some performance overhead, that makes a difference for a performance-sensitive application.

If someone could use ChunkResolver to learn the indices, they could then instead access the data directly.

What changes are included in this PR?

• Updates to documentation (thanks to @SChakravorti21 )
• Moving ChunkResolver to public API, and updating all references to it in the code

Are these changes tested?

There seemed to be comprehensive tests already: https://github.com/apache/arrow/blob/main/cpp/src/arrow/chunked_array_test.cc#L324 If an edgecase is missing, I'd be happy to add it.

Are there any user-facing changes?

ChunkResolver and TypedChunkLocation are now in the public API.

• GitHub Issue: [C++] Request to move ChunkResolver to public API #34535

[anjakefala]

I'm aware of the build failures and actively resolving them!

[anjakefala]

For the failing R builds, this conversation needs to be resolved: #43623

[felipecrv]

Yes, I agree this API should be made public. I've added tests and benchmarks recently [1].

[1] #43954

[anjakefala]

Please add a Co-authored-by: SChakravorti21 <schakravorti@bloomberg.net> in the squashed commit. I tried to add it, but I seem to had a typo, and it didn't register.

(Edit: Turns out PRs are merged via a script, and not a manual squash.)

[anjakefala]

I amended @SChakravorti21 as an author in a recent commit, so that the merge script will pick them up as a co-author.

[assignUser]

Suggested change

	#if ARROW_MAJOR_VERSION >= 18
	#if ARROW_VERSION_MAJOR >= 18

atm the wrong branch get's picked: https://github.com/apache/arrow/actions/runs/11407714122/job/31744347738?pr=44357#step:7:29940

See arrow/util/config.h