[C++] Update bundled Protobuf to a more recent version

[raulcd]

Describe the enhancement requested

We are using a pretty old version of the bundled Protobuf:

arrow/cpp/thirdparty/versions.txt

Lines 95 to 96 in 00de992

	ARROW_PROTOBUF_BUILD_VERSION=v21.3
	ARROW_PROTOBUF_BUILD_SHA256_CHECKSUM=2f723218f6cb709ae4cdc4fb5ed56a5951fc5d466f0128ce4c946b8c78c8c49f

The version is ~2.5 years old, see: https://github.com/protocolbuffers/protobuf/releases/tag/v21.3
We should update to a newer version as discussed here:
#44775 (comment)

Component(s)

C++

[github-actions]

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[raulcd]

I am currently moving several of our dependencies to FetchContent, see:

• [C++] Refactor bundled dependencies from ExternalProject to FetchContent #45303

This should allow easier upgrade for some of our dependencies that have been difficult to upgrade in the past like Abseil, gRPC and Protobuf. I plan to work on this issue and the rest of the upgrades once I have moved all of them to FetchContent