Merge pull request #1 from adambard/master

Merging changes from source branch

bash.html.markdown

@@ -51,7 +51,7 @@ echo $Variable
 echo "$Variable"
 echo '$Variable'
 # When you use the variable itself — assign it, export it, or else — you write
-# its name without $. If you want to use variable's value, you should use $.
+# its name without $. If you want to use the variable's value, you should use $.
 # Note that ' (single quote) won't expand the variables!
 
 # String substitution in variables
@@ -70,11 +70,11 @@ echo ${Foo:-"DefaultValueIfFooIsMissingOrEmpty"}
 
 # Builtin variables:
 # There are some useful builtin variables, like
-echo "Last program return value: $?"
+echo "Last program's return value: $?"
 echo "Script's PID: $$"
-echo "Number of arguments: $#"
-echo "Scripts arguments: $@"
-echo "Scripts arguments separated in different variables: $1 $2..."
+echo "Number of arguments passed to script: $#"
+echo "All arguments passed to script: $@"
+echo "Script's arguments separated into different variables: $1 $2..."
 
 # Reading a value from input:
 echo "What's your name?"
@@ -108,8 +108,8 @@ fi
 # Expressions are denoted with the following format:
 echo $(( 10 + 5 ))
 
-# Unlike other programming languages, bash is a shell — so it works in a context
-# of current directory. You can list files and directories in the current
+# Unlike other programming languages, bash is a shell so it works in the context
+# of a current directory. You can list files and directories in the current
 # directory with the ls command:
 ls
 

c++.html.markdown

@@ -5,6 +5,7 @@ contributors:
     - ["Steven Basart", "http://github.com/xksteven"]
     - ["Matt Kline", "https://github.com/mrkline"]
     - ["Geoff Liu", "http://geoffliu.me"]
+    - ["Connor Waters", "http://github.com/connorwaters"]
 lang: en
 ---
 
@@ -53,11 +54,11 @@ int main(int argc, char** argv)
 
 // However, C++ varies in some of the following ways:
 
-// In C++, character literals are one byte.
-sizeof('c') == 1
+// In C++, character literals are chars
+sizeof('c') == sizeof(char) == 1
 
-// In C, character literals are the same size as ints.
-sizeof('c') == sizeof(10)
+// In C, character literals are ints
+sizeof('c') == sizeof(int)
 
 
 // C++ has strict prototyping
@@ -159,9 +160,9 @@ void foo()
 
 int main()
 {
-    // Includes all symbols from `namesapce Second` into the current scope. Note
-    // that simply `foo()` no longer works, since it is now ambiguous whether
-    // we're calling the `foo` in `namespace Second` or the top level.
+    // Includes all symbols from namespace Second into the current scope. Note
+    // that simply foo() no longer works, since it is now ambiguous whether
+    // we're calling the foo in namespace Second or the top level.
     using namespace Second;
 
     Second::foo(); // prints "This is Second::foo"
@@ -244,7 +245,13 @@ cout << fooRef; // Prints "I am foo. Hi!"
 // Doesn't reassign "fooRef". This is the same as "foo = bar", and
 //   foo == "I am bar"
 // after this line.
+cout << &fooRef << endl; //Prints the address of foo
 fooRef = bar;
+cout << &fooRef << endl; //Still prints the address of foo
+cout << fooRef;  // Prints "I am bar"
+
+//The address of fooRef remains the same, i.e. it is still referring to foo.
+
 
 const string& barRef = bar; // Create a const reference to bar.
 // Like C, const values (and pointers and references) cannot be modified.
@@ -256,7 +263,7 @@ string tempObjectFun() { ... }
 string retVal = tempObjectFun();
 
 // What happens in the second line is actually:
-//   - a string object is returned from `tempObjectFun`
+//   - a string object is returned from tempObjectFun
 //   - a new string is constructed with the returned object as arugment to the
 //     constructor
 //   - the returned object is destroyed
@@ -268,15 +275,15 @@ string retVal = tempObjectFun();
 // code:
 foo(bar(tempObjectFun()))
 
-// assuming `foo` and `bar` exist, the object returned from `tempObjectFun` is
-// passed to `bar`, and it is destroyed before `foo` is called.
+// assuming foo and bar exist, the object returned from tempObjectFun is
+// passed to bar, and it is destroyed before foo is called.
 
 // Now back to references. The exception to the "at the end of the enclosing
 // expression" rule is if a temporary object is bound to a const reference, in
 // which case its life gets extended to the current scope:
 
 void constReferenceTempObjectFun() {
-  // `constRef` gets the temporary object, and it is valid until the end of this
+  // constRef gets the temporary object, and it is valid until the end of this
   // function.
   const string& constRef = tempObjectFun();
   ...
@@ -301,7 +308,7 @@ basic_string(basic_string&& other);
 // Idea being if we are constructing a new string from a temporary object (which
 // is going to be destroyed soon anyway), we can have a more efficient
 // constructor that "salvages" parts of that temporary string. You will see this
-// concept referred to as the move semantic.
+// concept referred to as "move semantics".
 
 //////////////////////////////////////////
 // Classes and object-oriented programming
@@ -349,7 +356,10 @@ public:
     // These are called when an object is deleted or falls out of scope.
     // This enables powerful paradigms such as RAII
     // (see below)
-    // Destructors must be virtual to allow classes to be derived from this one.
+    // The destructor should be virtual if a class is to be derived from;
+    // if it is not virtual, then the derived class' destructor will
+    // not be called if the object is destroyed through a base-class reference
+    // or pointer.
     virtual ~Dog();
 
 }; // A semicolon must follow the class definition.
@@ -492,9 +502,10 @@ int main () {
 /////////////////////
 
 // Templates in C++ are mostly used for generic programming, though they are
-// much more powerful than generics constructs in other languages. It also
-// supports explicit and partial specialization, functional-style type classes,
-// and also it's Turing-complete.
+// much more powerful than generic constructs in other languages. They also
+// support explicit and partial specialization and functional-style type
+// classes; in fact, they are a Turing-complete functional language embedded
+// in C++!
 
 // We start with the kind of generic programming you might be familiar with. To
 // define a class or function that takes a type parameter:
@@ -506,7 +517,7 @@ public:
 };
 
 // During compilation, the compiler actually generates copies of each template
-// with parameters substituted, and so the full definition of the class must be
+// with parameters substituted, so the full definition of the class must be
 // present at each invocation. This is why you will see template classes defined
 // entirely in header files.
 
@@ -520,13 +531,13 @@ intBox.insert(123);
 Box<Box<int> > boxOfBox;
 boxOfBox.insert(intBox);
 
-// Up until C++11, you must place a space between the two '>'s, otherwise '>>'
-// will be parsed as the right shift operator.
+// Until C++11, you had to place a space between the two '>'s, otherwise '>>'
+// would be parsed as the right shift operator.
 
 // You will sometimes see
 //   template<typename T>
-// instead. The 'class' keyword and 'typename' keyword are _mostly_
-// interchangeable in this case. For full explanation, see
+// instead. The 'class' keyword and 'typename' keywords are _mostly_
+// interchangeable in this case. For the full explanation, see
 //   http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typename
 // (yes, that keyword has its own Wikipedia page).
 
@@ -582,12 +593,15 @@ try {
     // Do not allocate exceptions on the heap using _new_.
     throw std::runtime_error("A problem occurred");
 }
+
 // Catch exceptions by const reference if they are objects
 catch (const std::exception& ex)
 {
-  std::cout << ex.what();
+    std::cout << ex.what();
+}
+
 // Catches any exception not caught by previous _catch_ blocks
-} catch (...)
+catch (...)
 {
     std::cout << "Unknown exception caught";
     throw; // Re-throws the exception
@@ -597,8 +611,8 @@ catch (const std::exception& ex)
 // RAII
 ///////
 
-// RAII stands for Resource Allocation Is Initialization.
-// It is often considered the most powerful paradigm in C++,
+// RAII stands for "Resource Acquisition Is Initialization".
+// It is often considered the most powerful paradigm in C++
 // and is the simple concept that a constructor for an object
 // acquires that object's resources and the destructor releases them.
 
@@ -619,9 +633,9 @@ void doSomethingWithAFile(const char* filename)
 // Unfortunately, things are quickly complicated by error handling.
 // Suppose fopen can fail, and that doSomethingWithTheFile and
 // doSomethingElseWithIt return error codes if they fail.
-// (Exceptions are the preferred way of handling failure,
-//  but some programmers, especially those with a C background,
-//  disagree on the utility of exceptions).
+//  (Exceptions are the preferred way of handling failure,
+//   but some programmers, especially those with a C background,
+//   disagree on the utility of exceptions).
 // We now have to check each call for failure and close the file handle
 // if a problem occurred.
 bool doSomethingWithAFile(const char* filename)
@@ -735,21 +749,23 @@ class Foo {
   virtual void bar();
 };
 class FooSub : public Foo {
-  virtual void bar();  // overrides Foo::bar!
+  virtual void bar();  // Overrides Foo::bar!
 };
 
 
 // 0 == false == NULL (most of the time)!
 bool* pt = new bool;
-*pt = 0;  // Sets the value points by 'pt' to false.
+*pt = 0; // Sets the value points by 'pt' to false.
 pt = 0;  // Sets 'pt' to the null pointer. Both lines compile without warnings.
 
 // nullptr is supposed to fix some of that issue:
 int* pt2 = new int;
-*pt2 = nullptr;  // Doesn't compile
+*pt2 = nullptr; // Doesn't compile
 pt2 = nullptr;  // Sets pt2 to null.
 
-// But somehow 'bool' type is an exception (this is to make `if (ptr)` compile).
+// There is an exception made for bools.
+// This is to allow you to test for null pointers with if(!ptr),
+// but as a consequence you can assign nullptr to a bool directly!
 *pt = nullptr;  // This still compiles, even though '*pt' is a bool!
 
 
@@ -776,12 +792,12 @@ vector<Foo> v;
 for (int i = 0; i < 10; ++i)
   v.push_back(Foo());
 
-// Following line sets size of v to 0, but destructors don't get called,
+// Following line sets size of v to 0, but destructors don't get called
 // and resources aren't released!
 v.empty();
-v.push_back(Foo());  // New value is copied into the first Foo we inserted in the loop.
+v.push_back(Foo());  // New value is copied into the first Foo we inserted
 
-// Truly destroys all values in v. See section about temporary object for
+// Truly destroys all values in v. See section about temporary objects for
 // explanation of why this works.
 v.swap(vector<Foo>());
 

c.html.markdown

@@ -130,7 +130,9 @@ int main(void) {
   // can be declared as well. The size of such an array need not be a compile
   // time constant:
   printf("Enter the array size: "); // ask the user for an array size
-  char buf[0x100];
+  int size;
+  fscanf(stdin, "%d", &size);
+  char buf[size];
   fgets(buf, sizeof buf, stdin);
 
   // strtoul parses a string to an unsigned integer

chapel.html.markdown

@@ -1074,14 +1074,14 @@ Installing the Compiler
 
 Chapel can be built and installed on your average 'nix machine (and cygwin).
 [Download the latest release version](https://github.com/chapel-lang/chapel/releases/)
-and its as easy as 
+and it's as easy as 
 
  1. `tar -xvf chapel-1.11.0.tar.gz`
  2. `cd chapel-1.11.0`
  3. `make`
  4. `source util/setchplenv.bash # or .sh or .csh or .fish`
 
-You will need to `source util/setchplenv.EXT` from within the Chapel directory (`$CHPL_HOME`) every time your terminal starts so its suggested that you drop that command in a script that will get executed on startup (like .bashrc).
+You will need to `source util/setchplenv.EXT` from within the Chapel directory (`$CHPL_HOME`) every time your terminal starts so it's suggested that you drop that command in a script that will get executed on startup (like .bashrc).
 
 Chapel is easily installed with Brew for OS X
 
@@ -1100,4 +1100,4 @@ Notable arguments:
  * `--fast`: enables a number of optimizations and disables array bounds checks. Should only enable when application is stable.
  * `--set <Symbol Name>=<Value>`: set config param `<Symbol Name>` to `<Value>` at compile-time.
  * `--main-module <Module Name>`: use the main() procedure found in the module `<Module Name>` as the executable's main.
- * `--module-dir <Directory>`: includes `<Directory>` in the module search path.
+ * `--module-dir <Directory>`: includes `<Directory>` in the module search path.

common-lisp.html.markdown

@@ -175,7 +175,8 @@ nil                  ; for false - and the empty list
               :age 5))
 *rover* ; => #S(DOG :NAME "rover" :BREED "collie" :AGE 5)
 
-(dog-p *rover*) ; => t  ;; ewww)
+(dog-p *rover*) ; => true  #| -p signifies "predicate". It's used to
+                              check if *rover* is an instance of dog. |#
 (dog-name *rover*) ; => "rover"
 
 ;; Dog-p, make-dog, and dog-name are all created by defstruct!

csharp.html.markdown

@@ -236,7 +236,8 @@ on a new line! ""Wow!"", the masses cried";
             // Ternary operators
             // A simple if/else can be written as follows
             // <condition> ? <true> : <false>
-            string isTrue = (true) ? "True" : "False";
+            int toCompare = 17;
+            string isTrue = toCompare == 17 ? "True" : "False";
 
             // While loop
             int fooWhile = 0;

css.html.markdown

@@ -7,19 +7,19 @@ contributors:
 filename: learncss.css
 ---
 
-In early days of web there was no visual elements, just pure text. But with the  
-further development of browser fully visual web pages also became common.   
+In the early days of the web there were no visual elements, just pure text. But with the  
+further development of browsers, fully visual web pages also became common.   
 CSS is the standard language that exists to keep the separation between   
 the content (HTML) and the look-and-feel of web pages.
 
 In short, what CSS does is to provide a syntax that enables you to target   
 different elements on an HTML page and assign different visual properties to them.
 
-Like any other language, CSS has many versions. Here we focus on CSS2.0   
-which is not the most recent but the most widely supported and compatible version.
+Like any other languages, CSS has many versions. Here we focus on CSS2.0,   
+which is not the most recent version, but is the most widely supported and compatible version.
 
-**NOTE:** Because the outcome of CSS is some visual effects, in order to 
-learn it, you need try all different things in a 
+**NOTE:** Because the outcome of CSS consists of visual effects, in order to 
+learn it, you need try everything in a 
 CSS playground like [dabblet](http://dabblet.com/).
 The main focus of this article is on the syntax and some general tips.
 

de-de/csharp-de.html.markdown

@@ -248,7 +248,8 @@ zur nächsten Zeile, ""Wahnsinn!"", die Massen waren kaum zu bändigen";
             // Ternärer Operator
             // Anstatt eines einfachen if/else lässt sich auch folgendes schreiben:
             // <condition> ? <true> : <false>
-            string isTrue = true ? "Ja" : "Nein";
+            int zumVergleich = 17;
+            string isTrue = zumVergleich == 17 ? "Ja" : "Nein";
 
             // while-Schleife
             int fooWhile = 0;
@@ -886,4 +887,4 @@ zur nächsten Zeile, ""Wahnsinn!"", die Massen waren kaum zu bändigen";
  * [ASP.NET Web Forms Tutorials](http://www.asp.net/web-forms/tutorials)
  * [Windows Forms Programming in C#](http://www.amazon.com/Windows-Forms-Programming-Chris-Sells/dp/0321116208)
 
-[C# Coding Conventions](http://msdn.microsoft.com/de-de/library/vstudio/ff926074.aspx)
+[C# Coding Conventions](http://msdn.microsoft.com/de-de/library/vstudio/ff926074.aspx)

de-de/git-de.html.markdown

@@ -48,7 +48,7 @@ Ein Repository besteht in Git aus dem .git-Verzeichnis und dem Arbeitsverzeichni
 
 ### .git-Verzeichnis (Teil des Repositorys)
 
-Das .git-Verzeichnis enth? alle Einstellung, Logs, Branches, den HEAD und mehr.
+Das .git-Verzeichnis enthält alle Einstellung, Logs, Branches, den HEAD und mehr.
 [Ausführliche Übersicht](http://gitready.com/advanced/2009/03/23/whats-inside-your-git-directory.html)
 
 ### Arbeitsverzeichnis (Teil des Repositorys)

de-de/go-de.html.markdown

@@ -312,7 +312,7 @@ Dokumentation lesen.
 Auch zu empfehlen ist die Spezifikation von Go, die nach heutigen Standards sehr
 kurz und auch gut verständlich formuliert ist. Auf der Leseliste von Go-Neulingen
 ist außerdem der Quelltext der [Go standard Bibliothek](http://golang.org/src/pkg/).
-Gut documentiert, demonstriert sie leicht zu verstehendes und im idiomatischen Stil
+Gut dokumentiert, demonstriert sie leicht zu verstehendes und im idiomatischen Stil
 verfasstes Go. Erreichbar ist der Quelltext auch durch das Klicken der Funktionsnamen
 in der [offiziellen Dokumentation von Go](http://golang.org/pkg/).