diff --git a/.github/workflows/build.yml b/.github/workflows/build.yml
index f7bb92c74..4a2883bd9 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/build.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/build.yml
@@ -43,9 +43,10 @@ jobs:
         run: make test
       - name: Run E2E Tests
         run: |
-          sh $GITHUB_WORKSPACE/test/e2e/scripts/e2e.sh $GITHUB_WORKSPACE --clean
+          bash $GITHUB_WORKSPACE/test/e2e/scripts/e2e.sh $GITHUB_WORKSPACE --clean
         env:
           ORAS_PATH: bin/linux/amd64/oras
+          COVERAGE_DUMP_ROOT: .cover
       - name: Check Version
         run: bin/linux/amd64/oras version
       - name: Upload coverage to codecov.io
diff --git a/.gitignore b/.gitignore
index 7b8e4c7e0..0c2f8f30d 100644
--- a/.gitignore
+++ b/.gitignore
@@ -36,6 +36,9 @@ debug
 
 # Custom
 coverage.txt
+test/e2e/coverage.txt
+**/covcounters.*
+**/covmeta.*
 bin/
 dist/
 *.tar.gz
diff --git a/Makefile b/Makefile
index 6957c0d93..f93af9b07 100644
--- a/Makefile
+++ b/Makefile
@@ -124,3 +124,7 @@ sign:
 	for f in $$(ls _dist/*.{gz,txt} 2>/dev/null) ; do \
 		gpg --armor --detach-sign $${f} ; \
 	done
+
+.PHONY: e2e-covdata
+e2e-covdata:
+	$(GO_EXE) tool covdata textfmt -i="test/e2e/${COVERAGE_DUMP_ROOT}" -o test/e2e/coverage.txt
diff --git a/cmd/oras/internal/option/common.go b/cmd/oras/internal/option/common.go
index 9d058ef81..6c5817967 100644
--- a/cmd/oras/internal/option/common.go
+++ b/cmd/oras/internal/option/common.go
@@ -16,7 +16,11 @@ limitations under the License.
 package option
 
 import (
+	"context"
+
+	"github.com/sirupsen/logrus"
 	"github.com/spf13/pflag"
+	"oras.land/oras/internal/trace"
 )
 
 // Common option struct.
@@ -30,3 +34,8 @@ func (opts *Common) ApplyFlags(fs *pflag.FlagSet) {
 	fs.BoolVarP(&opts.Debug, "debug", "d", false, "debug mode")
 	fs.BoolVarP(&opts.Verbose, "verbose", "v", false, "verbose output")
 }
+
+// WithContext returns a new FieldLogger and an associated Context derived from ctx.
+func (opts *Common) WithContext(ctx context.Context) (context.Context, logrus.FieldLogger) {
+	return trace.NewLogger(ctx, opts.Debug, opts.Verbose)
+}
diff --git a/cmd/oras/root/attach.go b/cmd/oras/root/attach.go
index b6f626090..a1032f67b 100644
--- a/cmd/oras/root/attach.go
+++ b/cmd/oras/root/attach.go
@@ -28,7 +28,6 @@ import (
 	"oras.land/oras-go/v2/content/file"
 	"oras.land/oras/cmd/oras/internal/option"
 	"oras.land/oras/internal/graph"
-	"oras.land/oras/internal/trace"
 )
 
 type attachOptions struct {
@@ -86,7 +85,7 @@ Example - Attach file to the manifest tagged 'v1' in an OCI layout folder 'layou
 			return nil
 		},
 		RunE: func(cmd *cobra.Command, args []string) error {
-			return runAttach(opts)
+			return runAttach(cmd.Context(), opts)
 		},
 	}
 
@@ -98,8 +97,8 @@ Example - Attach file to the manifest tagged 'v1' in an OCI layout folder 'layou
 	return cmd
 }
 
-func runAttach(opts attachOptions) error {
-	ctx, _ := trace.NewLogger(opts.Debug, opts.Verbose)
+func runAttach(ctx context.Context, opts attachOptions) error {
+	ctx, _ = opts.WithContext(ctx)
 	annotations, err := opts.LoadManifestAnnotations()
 	if err != nil {
 		return err
diff --git a/cmd/oras/root/blob/delete.go b/cmd/oras/root/blob/delete.go
index 9b99eb80a..0f55d044b 100644
--- a/cmd/oras/root/blob/delete.go
+++ b/cmd/oras/root/blob/delete.go
@@ -16,6 +16,7 @@ limitations under the License.
 package blob
 
 import (
+	"context"
 	"errors"
 	"fmt"
 	"os"
@@ -23,7 +24,6 @@ import (
 	"github.com/spf13/cobra"
 	"oras.land/oras-go/v2/errdef"
 	"oras.land/oras/cmd/oras/internal/option"
-	"oras.land/oras/internal/trace"
 )
 
 type deleteBlobOptions struct {
@@ -62,7 +62,7 @@ Example - Delete a blob and print its descriptor:
 		},
 		RunE: func(cmd *cobra.Command, args []string) error {
 			opts.targetRef = args[0]
-			return deleteBlob(opts)
+			return deleteBlob(cmd.Context(), opts)
 		},
 	}
 
@@ -70,8 +70,8 @@ Example - Delete a blob and print its descriptor:
 	return cmd
 }
 
-func deleteBlob(opts deleteBlobOptions) (err error) {
-	ctx, _ := trace.NewLogger(opts.Debug, opts.Verbose)
+func deleteBlob(ctx context.Context, opts deleteBlobOptions) (err error) {
+	ctx, _ = opts.WithContext(ctx)
 	repo, err := opts.NewRepository(opts.targetRef, opts.Common)
 	if err != nil {
 		return err
diff --git a/cmd/oras/root/blob/fetch.go b/cmd/oras/root/blob/fetch.go
index 614a414aa..cbf0d31c9 100644
--- a/cmd/oras/root/blob/fetch.go
+++ b/cmd/oras/root/blob/fetch.go
@@ -16,6 +16,7 @@ limitations under the License.
 package blob
 
 import (
+	"context"
 	"errors"
 	"fmt"
 	"io"
@@ -28,7 +29,6 @@ import (
 	"oras.land/oras-go/v2/content"
 	"oras.land/oras-go/v2/registry/remote"
 	"oras.land/oras/cmd/oras/internal/option"
-	"oras.land/oras/internal/trace"
 )
 
 type fetchBlobOptions struct {
@@ -80,7 +80,7 @@ Example - Fetch and print a blob from OCI image layout archive file 'layout.tar'
 		},
 		Aliases: []string{"get"},
 		RunE: func(cmd *cobra.Command, args []string) error {
-			return fetchBlob(opts)
+			return fetchBlob(cmd.Context(), opts)
 		},
 	}
 
@@ -89,8 +89,8 @@ Example - Fetch and print a blob from OCI image layout archive file 'layout.tar'
 	return cmd
 }
 
-func fetchBlob(opts fetchBlobOptions) (fetchErr error) {
-	ctx, _ := trace.NewLogger(opts.Debug, opts.Verbose)
+func fetchBlob(ctx context.Context, opts fetchBlobOptions) (fetchErr error) {
+	ctx, _ = opts.WithContext(ctx)
 	var target oras.ReadOnlyTarget
 	target, err := opts.NewReadonlyTarget(ctx, opts.Common)
 	if err != nil {
diff --git a/cmd/oras/root/blob/push.go b/cmd/oras/root/blob/push.go
index 9a21bbd64..ed5d409bc 100644
--- a/cmd/oras/root/blob/push.go
+++ b/cmd/oras/root/blob/push.go
@@ -16,6 +16,7 @@ limitations under the License.
 package blob
 
 import (
+	"context"
 	"errors"
 	"fmt"
 	"os"
@@ -25,7 +26,6 @@ import (
 	"oras.land/oras/cmd/oras/internal/display"
 	"oras.land/oras/cmd/oras/internal/option"
 	"oras.land/oras/internal/file"
-	"oras.land/oras/internal/trace"
 )
 
 type pushBlobOptions struct {
@@ -85,7 +85,7 @@ Example - Push blob 'hi.txt' into an OCI layout folder 'layout-dir':
 			return option.Parse(&opts)
 		},
 		RunE: func(cmd *cobra.Command, args []string) error {
-			return pushBlob(opts)
+			return pushBlob(cmd.Context(), opts)
 		},
 	}
 
@@ -95,8 +95,8 @@ Example - Push blob 'hi.txt' into an OCI layout folder 'layout-dir':
 	return cmd
 }
 
-func pushBlob(opts pushBlobOptions) (err error) {
-	ctx, _ := trace.NewLogger(opts.Debug, opts.Verbose)
+func pushBlob(ctx context.Context, opts pushBlobOptions) (err error) {
+	ctx, _ = opts.WithContext(ctx)
 
 	repo, err := opts.NewTarget(opts.Common)
 	if err != nil {
diff --git a/cmd/oras/root/cp.go b/cmd/oras/root/cp.go
index c8d270569..26b58d18c 100644
--- a/cmd/oras/root/cp.go
+++ b/cmd/oras/root/cp.go
@@ -28,7 +28,6 @@ import (
 	"oras.land/oras/cmd/oras/internal/display"
 	"oras.land/oras/cmd/oras/internal/option"
 	"oras.land/oras/internal/graph"
-	"oras.land/oras/internal/trace"
 )
 
 type copyOptions struct {
@@ -86,7 +85,7 @@ Example - Copy an artifact with multiple tags with concurrency tuned:
 			return option.Parse(&opts)
 		},
 		RunE: func(cmd *cobra.Command, args []string) error {
-			return runCopy(opts)
+			return runCopy(cmd.Context(), opts)
 		},
 	}
 	cmd.Flags().BoolVarP(&opts.recursive, "recursive", "r", false, "[Preview] recursively copy the artifact and its referrer artifacts")
@@ -96,8 +95,8 @@ Example - Copy an artifact with multiple tags with concurrency tuned:
 	return cmd
 }
 
-func runCopy(opts copyOptions) error {
-	ctx, _ := trace.NewLogger(opts.Debug, opts.Verbose)
+func runCopy(ctx context.Context, opts copyOptions) error {
+	ctx, _ = opts.WithContext(ctx)
 
 	// Prepare source
 	src, err := opts.From.NewReadonlyTarget(ctx, opts.Common)
diff --git a/cmd/oras/root/discover.go b/cmd/oras/root/discover.go
index dba27ad38..895534423 100644
--- a/cmd/oras/root/discover.go
+++ b/cmd/oras/root/discover.go
@@ -31,7 +31,6 @@ import (
 	"oras.land/oras-go/v2"
 	"oras.land/oras/cmd/oras/internal/option"
 	"oras.land/oras/internal/graph"
-	"oras.land/oras/internal/trace"
 )
 
 type discoverOptions struct {
@@ -80,7 +79,7 @@ Example - Discover referrers of the manifest tagged 'v1' in an OCI layout folder
 			return option.Parse(&opts)
 		},
 		RunE: func(cmd *cobra.Command, args []string) error {
-			return runDiscover(opts)
+			return runDiscover(cmd.Context(), opts)
 		},
 	}
 
@@ -91,8 +90,8 @@ Example - Discover referrers of the manifest tagged 'v1' in an OCI layout folder
 	return cmd
 }
 
-func runDiscover(opts discoverOptions) error {
-	ctx, _ := trace.NewLogger(opts.Debug, opts.Verbose)
+func runDiscover(ctx context.Context, opts discoverOptions) error {
+	ctx, _ = opts.WithContext(ctx)
 	repo, err := opts.NewReadonlyTarget(ctx, opts.Common)
 	if err != nil {
 		return err
diff --git a/cmd/oras/root/login.go b/cmd/oras/root/login.go
index a34cbd703..ae2ebe89f 100644
--- a/cmd/oras/root/login.go
+++ b/cmd/oras/root/login.go
@@ -17,6 +17,7 @@ package root
 
 import (
 	"bufio"
+	"context"
 	"errors"
 	"fmt"
 	"os"
@@ -26,7 +27,6 @@ import (
 	"github.com/spf13/cobra"
 	"oras.land/oras/cmd/oras/internal/option"
 	"oras.land/oras/internal/credential"
-	"oras.land/oras/internal/trace"
 )
 
 type loginOptions struct {
@@ -66,15 +66,15 @@ Example - Log in with username and password in an interactive terminal and no TL
 		},
 		RunE: func(cmd *cobra.Command, args []string) error {
 			opts.Hostname = args[0]
-			return runLogin(opts)
+			return runLogin(cmd.Context(), opts)
 		},
 	}
 	option.ApplyFlags(&opts, cmd.Flags())
 	return cmd
 }
 
-func runLogin(opts loginOptions) (err error) {
-	ctx, _ := trace.NewLogger(opts.Debug, opts.Verbose)
+func runLogin(ctx context.Context, opts loginOptions) (err error) {
+	ctx, _ = opts.WithContext(ctx)
 
 	// prompt for credential
 	if opts.Password == "" {
diff --git a/cmd/oras/root/logout.go b/cmd/oras/root/logout.go
index 142157159..a4ee857f4 100644
--- a/cmd/oras/root/logout.go
+++ b/cmd/oras/root/logout.go
@@ -16,6 +16,8 @@ limitations under the License.
 package root
 
 import (
+	"context"
+
 	"github.com/sirupsen/logrus"
 	"github.com/spf13/cobra"
 	"oras.land/oras/internal/credential"
@@ -41,7 +43,7 @@ Example - Logout:
 		Args: cobra.ExactArgs(1),
 		RunE: func(cmd *cobra.Command, args []string) error {
 			opts.hostname = args[0]
-			return runLogout(opts)
+			return runLogout(cmd.Context(), opts)
 		},
 	}
 
@@ -50,7 +52,7 @@ Example - Logout:
 	return cmd
 }
 
-func runLogout(opts logoutOptions) error {
+func runLogout(ctx context.Context, opts logoutOptions) error {
 	if opts.debug {
 		logrus.SetLevel(logrus.DebugLevel)
 	}
diff --git a/cmd/oras/root/manifest/delete.go b/cmd/oras/root/manifest/delete.go
index 5007911a3..8ece10400 100644
--- a/cmd/oras/root/manifest/delete.go
+++ b/cmd/oras/root/manifest/delete.go
@@ -16,6 +16,7 @@ limitations under the License.
 package manifest
 
 import (
+	"context"
 	"errors"
 	"fmt"
 	"os"
@@ -24,7 +25,6 @@ import (
 	"oras.land/oras-go/v2/errdef"
 	oerrors "oras.land/oras/cmd/oras/internal/errors"
 	"oras.land/oras/cmd/oras/internal/option"
-	"oras.land/oras/internal/trace"
 )
 
 type deleteOptions struct {
@@ -64,9 +64,9 @@ Example - Delete a manifest by digest 'sha256:99e4703fbf30916f549cd6bfa9cdbab614
 			}
 			return option.Parse(&opts)
 		},
-		RunE: func(_ *cobra.Command, args []string) error {
+		RunE: func(cmd *cobra.Command, args []string) error {
 			opts.targetRef = args[0]
-			return deleteManifest(opts)
+			return deleteManifest(cmd.Context(), opts)
 		},
 	}
 
@@ -75,8 +75,8 @@ Example - Delete a manifest by digest 'sha256:99e4703fbf30916f549cd6bfa9cdbab614
 	return cmd
 }
 
-func deleteManifest(opts deleteOptions) error {
-	ctx, _ := trace.NewLogger(opts.Debug, opts.Verbose)
+func deleteManifest(ctx context.Context, opts deleteOptions) error {
+	ctx, _ = opts.WithContext(ctx)
 	repo, err := opts.NewRepository(opts.targetRef, opts.Common)
 	if err != nil {
 		return err
diff --git a/cmd/oras/root/manifest/fetch.go b/cmd/oras/root/manifest/fetch.go
index de10e5dcb..67470f2f8 100644
--- a/cmd/oras/root/manifest/fetch.go
+++ b/cmd/oras/root/manifest/fetch.go
@@ -16,6 +16,7 @@ limitations under the License.
 package manifest
 
 import (
+	"context"
 	"encoding/json"
 	"errors"
 	"fmt"
@@ -26,7 +27,6 @@ import (
 	"oras.land/oras-go/v2"
 	"oras.land/oras-go/v2/registry/remote"
 	"oras.land/oras/cmd/oras/internal/option"
-	"oras.land/oras/internal/trace"
 )
 
 type fetchOptions struct {
@@ -79,7 +79,7 @@ Example - Fetch raw manifest from an OCI layout archive file 'layout.tar':
 		},
 		Aliases: []string{"get"},
 		RunE: func(cmd *cobra.Command, args []string) error {
-			return fetchManifest(opts)
+			return fetchManifest(cmd.Context(), opts)
 		},
 	}
 
@@ -89,8 +89,8 @@ Example - Fetch raw manifest from an OCI layout archive file 'layout.tar':
 	return cmd
 }
 
-func fetchManifest(opts fetchOptions) (fetchErr error) {
-	ctx, _ := trace.NewLogger(opts.Debug, opts.Verbose)
+func fetchManifest(ctx context.Context, opts fetchOptions) (fetchErr error) {
+	ctx, _ = opts.WithContext(ctx)
 
 	target, err := opts.NewReadonlyTarget(ctx, opts.Common)
 	if err != nil {
diff --git a/cmd/oras/root/manifest/fetch_config.go b/cmd/oras/root/manifest/fetch_config.go
index 61115ba55..db8fca350 100644
--- a/cmd/oras/root/manifest/fetch_config.go
+++ b/cmd/oras/root/manifest/fetch_config.go
@@ -28,7 +28,6 @@ import (
 	"oras.land/oras-go/v2/content"
 	"oras.land/oras/cmd/oras/internal/option"
 	"oras.land/oras/internal/descriptor"
-	"oras.land/oras/internal/trace"
 )
 
 type fetchConfigOptions struct {
@@ -77,7 +76,7 @@ Example - Fetch and print the prettified descriptor of the config:
 			return option.Parse(&opts)
 		},
 		RunE: func(cmd *cobra.Command, args []string) error {
-			return fetchConfig(opts)
+			return fetchConfig(cmd.Context(), opts)
 		},
 	}
 
@@ -86,8 +85,8 @@ Example - Fetch and print the prettified descriptor of the config:
 	return cmd
 }
 
-func fetchConfig(opts fetchConfigOptions) (fetchErr error) {
-	ctx, _ := trace.NewLogger(opts.Debug, opts.Verbose)
+func fetchConfig(ctx context.Context, opts fetchConfigOptions) (fetchErr error) {
+	ctx, _ = opts.WithContext(ctx)
 
 	repo, err := opts.NewReadonlyTarget(ctx, opts.Common)
 	if err != nil {
diff --git a/cmd/oras/root/manifest/push.go b/cmd/oras/root/manifest/push.go
index 74dd2d297..e7a86ef02 100644
--- a/cmd/oras/root/manifest/push.go
+++ b/cmd/oras/root/manifest/push.go
@@ -31,7 +31,6 @@ import (
 	"oras.land/oras/cmd/oras/internal/display"
 	"oras.land/oras/cmd/oras/internal/option"
 	"oras.land/oras/internal/file"
-	"oras.land/oras/internal/trace"
 )
 
 type pushOptions struct {
@@ -92,8 +91,8 @@ Example - Push a manifest to an OCI layout folder 'layout-dir' and tag with 'v1'
 			opts.extraRefs = refs[1:]
 			return option.Parse(&opts)
 		},
-		RunE: func(_ *cobra.Command, args []string) error {
-			return pushManifest(opts)
+		RunE: func(cmd *cobra.Command, args []string) error {
+			return pushManifest(cmd.Context(), opts)
 		},
 	}
 
@@ -104,8 +103,8 @@ Example - Push a manifest to an OCI layout folder 'layout-dir' and tag with 'v1'
 	return cmd
 }
 
-func pushManifest(opts pushOptions) error {
-	ctx, _ := trace.NewLogger(opts.Debug, opts.Verbose)
+func pushManifest(ctx context.Context, opts pushOptions) error {
+	ctx, _ = opts.WithContext(ctx)
 	var target oras.Target
 	var err error
 	target, err = opts.NewTarget(opts.Common)
diff --git a/cmd/oras/root/pull.go b/cmd/oras/root/pull.go
index ef1d72a7e..ec25da1c0 100644
--- a/cmd/oras/root/pull.go
+++ b/cmd/oras/root/pull.go
@@ -30,7 +30,6 @@ import (
 	"oras.land/oras/cmd/oras/internal/fileref"
 	"oras.land/oras/cmd/oras/internal/option"
 	"oras.land/oras/internal/graph"
-	"oras.land/oras/internal/trace"
 )
 
 type pullOptions struct {
@@ -88,7 +87,7 @@ Example - Pull artifact files from an OCI layout archive 'layout.tar':
 			return option.Parse(&opts)
 		},
 		RunE: func(cmd *cobra.Command, args []string) error {
-			return runPull(opts)
+			return runPull(cmd.Context(), opts)
 		},
 	}
 
@@ -102,7 +101,8 @@ Example - Pull artifact files from an OCI layout archive 'layout.tar':
 	return cmd
 }
 
-func runPull(opts pullOptions) error {
+func runPull(ctx context.Context, opts pullOptions) error {
+	ctx, _ = opts.WithContext(ctx)
 	// Copy Options
 	var printed sync.Map
 	copyOptions := oras.DefaultCopyOptions
@@ -181,7 +181,6 @@ func runPull(opts pullOptions) error {
 		return ret, nil
 	}
 
-	ctx, _ := trace.NewLogger(opts.Debug, opts.Verbose)
 	target, err := opts.NewReadonlyTarget(ctx, opts.Common)
 	if err != nil {
 		return err
diff --git a/cmd/oras/root/push.go b/cmd/oras/root/push.go
index b44ff9d04..152a2b2e1 100644
--- a/cmd/oras/root/push.go
+++ b/cmd/oras/root/push.go
@@ -30,7 +30,6 @@ import (
 	"oras.land/oras/cmd/oras/internal/display"
 	"oras.land/oras/cmd/oras/internal/fileref"
 	"oras.land/oras/cmd/oras/internal/option"
-	"oras.land/oras/internal/trace"
 )
 
 type pushOptions struct {
@@ -112,7 +111,7 @@ Example - Push file "hi.txt" into an OCI layout folder 'layout-dir' with tag 'te
 			return option.Parse(&opts)
 		},
 		RunE: func(cmd *cobra.Command, args []string) error {
-			return runPush(opts)
+			return runPush(cmd.Context(), opts)
 		},
 	}
 	cmd.Flags().StringVarP(&opts.manifestConfigRef, "config", "", "", "`path` of image config file")
@@ -123,8 +122,8 @@ Example - Push file "hi.txt" into an OCI layout folder 'layout-dir' with tag 'te
 	return cmd
 }
 
-func runPush(opts pushOptions) error {
-	ctx, _ := trace.NewLogger(opts.Debug, opts.Verbose)
+func runPush(ctx context.Context, opts pushOptions) error {
+	ctx, _ = opts.WithContext(ctx)
 	annotations, err := opts.LoadManifestAnnotations()
 	if err != nil {
 		return err
diff --git a/cmd/oras/root/repo/ls.go b/cmd/oras/root/repo/ls.go
index 949bdec71..f2da5e5f3 100644
--- a/cmd/oras/root/repo/ls.go
+++ b/cmd/oras/root/repo/ls.go
@@ -16,13 +16,13 @@ limitations under the License.
 package repo
 
 import (
+	"context"
 	"fmt"
 	"strings"
 
 	"github.com/spf13/cobra"
 	"oras.land/oras/cmd/oras/internal/option"
 	"oras.land/oras/internal/repository"
-	"oras.land/oras/internal/trace"
 )
 
 type repositoryOptions struct {
@@ -59,7 +59,7 @@ Example - List the repositories under the registry that include values lexically
 			if opts.hostname, opts.namespace, err = repository.ParseRepoPath(args[0]); err != nil {
 				return fmt.Errorf("could not parse repository path: %w", err)
 			}
-			return listRepository(opts)
+			return listRepository(cmd.Context(), opts)
 		},
 	}
 
@@ -68,8 +68,8 @@ Example - List the repositories under the registry that include values lexically
 	return cmd
 }
 
-func listRepository(opts repositoryOptions) error {
-	ctx, _ := trace.NewLogger(opts.Debug, opts.Verbose)
+func listRepository(ctx context.Context, opts repositoryOptions) error {
+	ctx, _ = opts.WithContext(ctx)
 	reg, err := opts.Remote.NewRegistry(opts.hostname, opts.Common)
 	if err != nil {
 		return err
diff --git a/cmd/oras/root/repo/tags.go b/cmd/oras/root/repo/tags.go
index e77388c84..21435eadf 100644
--- a/cmd/oras/root/repo/tags.go
+++ b/cmd/oras/root/repo/tags.go
@@ -16,13 +16,13 @@ limitations under the License.
 package repo
 
 import (
+	"context"
 	"fmt"
 	"strings"
 
 	"github.com/opencontainers/go-digest"
 	"github.com/spf13/cobra"
 	"oras.land/oras/cmd/oras/internal/option"
-	"oras.land/oras/internal/trace"
 )
 
 type showTagsOptions struct {
@@ -68,7 +68,7 @@ Example - Show tags associated with a digest:
 			return option.Parse(&opts)
 		},
 		RunE: func(cmd *cobra.Command, args []string) error {
-			return showTags(opts)
+			return showTags(cmd.Context(), opts)
 		},
 	}
 	cmd.Flags().StringVar(&opts.last, "last", "", "start after the tag specified by `last`")
@@ -77,8 +77,8 @@ Example - Show tags associated with a digest:
 	return cmd
 }
 
-func showTags(opts showTagsOptions) error {
-	ctx, logger := trace.NewLogger(opts.Debug, opts.Verbose)
+func showTags(ctx context.Context, opts showTagsOptions) error {
+	ctx, logger := opts.WithContext(ctx)
 	finder, err := opts.NewReadonlyTarget(ctx, opts.Common)
 	if err != nil {
 		return err
diff --git a/cmd/oras/root/tag.go b/cmd/oras/root/tag.go
index 80bf8fcec..ffa29a567 100644
--- a/cmd/oras/root/tag.go
+++ b/cmd/oras/root/tag.go
@@ -16,13 +16,13 @@ limitations under the License.
 package root
 
 import (
+	"context"
 	"fmt"
 
 	"github.com/spf13/cobra"
 	"oras.land/oras-go/v2"
 	"oras.land/oras/cmd/oras/internal/display"
 	"oras.land/oras/cmd/oras/internal/option"
-	"oras.land/oras/internal/trace"
 )
 
 type tagOptions struct {
@@ -61,8 +61,8 @@ Example - Tag the manifest 'v1.0.1' to 'v1.0.2' in an OCI layout folder 'layout-
 			opts.targetRefs = args[1:]
 			return option.Parse(&opts)
 		},
-		RunE: func(_ *cobra.Command, args []string) error {
-			return tagManifest(opts)
+		RunE: func(cmd *cobra.Command, args []string) error {
+			return tagManifest(cmd.Context(), opts)
 		},
 	}
 
@@ -71,8 +71,8 @@ Example - Tag the manifest 'v1.0.1' to 'v1.0.2' in an OCI layout folder 'layout-
 	return cmd
 }
 
-func tagManifest(opts tagOptions) error {
-	ctx, _ := trace.NewLogger(opts.Debug, opts.Verbose)
+func tagManifest(ctx context.Context, opts tagOptions) error {
+	ctx, _ = opts.WithContext(ctx)
 	target, err := opts.NewTarget(opts.Common)
 	if err != nil {
 		return err
diff --git a/go.mod b/go.mod
index c9ef7409b..51e194b44 100644
--- a/go.mod
+++ b/go.mod
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ module oras.land/oras
 go 1.20
 
 require (
-	github.com/docker/cli v23.0.1+incompatible
+	github.com/docker/cli v23.0.2+incompatible
 	github.com/moby/term v0.0.0-20210619224110-3f7ff695adc6
 	github.com/need-being/go-tree v0.1.0
 	github.com/opencontainers/go-digest v1.0.0
diff --git a/go.sum b/go.sum
index badcd7706..d69fe109e 100644
--- a/go.sum
+++ b/go.sum
@@ -7,8 +7,8 @@ github.com/danieljoos/wincred v1.1.0/go.mod h1:XYlo+eRTsVA9aHGp7NGjFkPla4m+DCL7h
 github.com/davecgh/go-spew v1.1.0/go.mod h1:J7Y8YcW2NihsgmVo/mv3lAwl/skON4iLHjSsI+c5H38=
 github.com/davecgh/go-spew v1.1.1 h1:vj9j/u1bqnvCEfJOwUhtlOARqs3+rkHYY13jYWTU97c=
 github.com/davecgh/go-spew v1.1.1/go.mod h1:J7Y8YcW2NihsgmVo/mv3lAwl/skON4iLHjSsI+c5H38=
-github.com/docker/cli v23.0.1+incompatible h1:LRyWITpGzl2C9e9uGxzisptnxAn1zfZKXy13Ul2Q5oM=
-github.com/docker/cli v23.0.1+incompatible/go.mod h1:JLrzqnKDaYBop7H2jaqPtU4hHvMKP+vjCwu2uszcLI8=
+github.com/docker/cli v23.0.2+incompatible h1:Yj4wkrNtyCNLCMobKDYzEUIsbtMbfAulkHMH75/ecik=
+github.com/docker/cli v23.0.2+incompatible/go.mod h1:JLrzqnKDaYBop7H2jaqPtU4hHvMKP+vjCwu2uszcLI8=
 github.com/docker/docker v20.10.17+incompatible h1:JYCuMrWaVNophQTOrMMoSwudOVEfcegoZZrleKc1xwE=
 github.com/docker/docker v20.10.17+incompatible/go.mod h1:eEKB0N0r5NX/I1kEveEz05bcu8tLC/8azJZsviup8Sk=
 github.com/docker/docker-credential-helpers v0.6.4 h1:axCks+yV+2MR3/kZhAmy07yC56WZ2Pwu/fKWtKuZB0o=
diff --git a/internal/trace/context.go b/internal/trace/context.go
index 249fa8a6c..d1299e6f1 100644
--- a/internal/trace/context.go
+++ b/internal/trace/context.go
@@ -27,7 +27,7 @@ type contextKey int
 const loggerKey contextKey = iota
 
 // NewLogger returns a logger.
-func NewLogger(debug bool, verbose bool) (context.Context, logrus.FieldLogger) {
+func NewLogger(ctx context.Context, debug bool, verbose bool) (context.Context, logrus.FieldLogger) {
 	var logLevel logrus.Level
 	if debug {
 		logLevel = logrus.DebugLevel
@@ -40,7 +40,6 @@ func NewLogger(debug bool, verbose bool) (context.Context, logrus.FieldLogger) {
 	logger := logrus.New()
 	logger.SetFormatter(&logrus.TextFormatter{DisableQuote: true})
 	logger.SetLevel(logLevel)
-	ctx := context.Background()
 	entry := logger.WithContext(ctx)
 	return context.WithValue(ctx, loggerKey, entry), entry
 }
diff --git a/test/e2e/internal/utils/exec.go b/test/e2e/internal/utils/exec.go
index b827ba019..a998828da 100644
--- a/test/e2e/internal/utils/exec.go
+++ b/test/e2e/internal/utils/exec.go
@@ -189,6 +189,7 @@ func (opts *ExecOption) Exec() *gexec.Session {
 		opts.binary = ORASPath
 	}
 	cmd = exec.Command(opts.binary, opts.args...)
+	cmd.Env = append(os.Environ(), fmt.Sprintf("GOCOVERDIR=%s", CovDumpPath))
 	cmd.Stdin = opts.stdin
 	if opts.workDir != "" {
 		// switch working directory
diff --git a/test/e2e/internal/utils/init.go b/test/e2e/internal/utils/init.go
index f0922c0d8..1928d83d7 100644
--- a/test/e2e/internal/utils/init.go
+++ b/test/e2e/internal/utils/init.go
@@ -36,6 +36,9 @@ var Host string
 // FallbackHost points to the registry service where fallback E2E specs will be run against.
 var FallbackHost string
 
+// Path to generate the coverage report.
+var CovDumpPath string
+
 func init() {
 	Host = os.Getenv(RegHostKey)
 	if Host == "" {
@@ -72,6 +75,25 @@ func init() {
 	}
 	BeforeSuite(func() {
 		ORASPath = os.Getenv("ORAS_PATH")
+		if covDumpRoot := os.Getenv("COVERAGE_DUMP_ROOT"); covDumpRoot != "" {
+			if ORASPath != "" {
+				fmt.Printf("Pre-built oras ignored: %s\n", ORASPath)
+				ORASPath = ""
+			}
+			if filepath.IsAbs(covDumpRoot) {
+				CovDumpPath = covDumpRoot
+			} else if workspacePath := os.Getenv("GITHUB_WORKSPACE"); workspacePath != "" {
+				CovDumpPath = filepath.Join(workspacePath, "test/e2e", covDumpRoot)
+			} else {
+				// local debugging
+				CovDumpPath = filepath.Join(pwd, "..", "..", covDumpRoot)
+			}
+
+			// confirm the existence of dump folder
+			err := os.MkdirAll(CovDumpPath, 0700)
+			gomega.Expect(err).NotTo(gomega.HaveOccurred())
+			fmt.Printf("Coverage file dump path: %q\n", CovDumpPath)
+		}
 		if filepath.IsAbs(ORASPath) {
 			fmt.Printf("Testing based on pre-built binary locates in %q\n", ORASPath)
 		} else if workspacePath := os.Getenv("GITHUB_WORKSPACE"); ORASPath != "" && workspacePath != "" {
@@ -82,7 +104,11 @@ func init() {
 			fmt.Printf("Testing based on pre-built binary locates in %q\n", ORASPath)
 		} else {
 			// fallback to native build to facilitate local debugging
-			ORASPath, err = gexec.Build("oras.land/oras/cmd/oras")
+			buildArgs := []string{}
+			if CovDumpPath != "" {
+				buildArgs = append(buildArgs, "-coverpkg", "oras.land/oras/cmd/oras/...,oras.land/oras/internal/...")
+			}
+			ORASPath, err = gexec.Build("oras.land/oras/cmd/oras", buildArgs...)
 			gomega.Expect(err).NotTo(gomega.HaveOccurred())
 			DeferCleanup(gexec.CleanupBuildArtifacts)
 			fmt.Printf("Testing based on temp binary locates in %q\n", ORASPath)
diff --git a/test/e2e/scripts/e2e.sh b/test/e2e/scripts/e2e.sh
index f434cfc92..b0a4f0747 100755
--- a/test/e2e/scripts/e2e.sh
+++ b/test/e2e/scripts/e2e.sh
@@ -43,22 +43,41 @@ fi
 
 oras_container_name="oras-e2e"
 upstream_container_name="oras-e2e-fallback"
+e2e_root="${repo_root}/test/e2e"
 echo " === preparing oras distribution === "
 run_registry \
-  ${repo_root}/test/e2e/testdata/distribution/mount \
+  ${e2e_root}/testdata/distribution/mount \
   ghcr.io/oras-project/registry:v1.0.0-rc.4 \
   $oras_container_name \
   $ORAS_REGISTRY_PORT
 
 echo " === preparing upstream distribution === "
 run_registry \
-  ${repo_root}/test/e2e/testdata/distribution/mount_fallback \
+  ${e2e_root}/testdata/distribution/mount_fallback \
   registry:2.8.1 \
   $upstream_container_name \
   $ORAS_REGISTRY_FALLBACK_PORT
 
+echo " === setup coverage instrumenting == "
+if [[ $GITHUB_REF_NAME == v* && $GITHUB_REF_TYPE == tag ]]; then
+    echo "coverage instrumentation skipped"
+    unset COVERAGE_DUMP_ROOT
+fi
+
+if ! [ -z ${COVERAGE_DUMP_ROOT} ]; then
+  rm ${e2e_root}/${COVERAGE_DUMP_ROOT} -rf
+fi
+
 echo " === run tests === "
-if ! ginkgo -r -p --succinct suite; then 
+ginkgo -r -p --succinct suite || fail=true
+
+if ! [ -z ${COVERAGE_DUMP_ROOT} ]; then
+  echo " === generating code cov report === "
+  make -C ${repo_root} e2e-covdata || true
+fi
+
+if [ "${fail}" = 'true' ]; then
+  echo " === retriving registry error logs === "
   echo '-------- oras distribution trace -------------'
   docker logs -t --tail 200 $oras_container_name
   echo '-------- upstream distribution trace -------------'
diff --git a/test/e2e/suite/command/blob.go b/test/e2e/suite/command/blob.go
index 15f13f408..12ca81dd2 100644
--- a/test/e2e/suite/command/blob.go
+++ b/test/e2e/suite/command/blob.go
@@ -41,14 +41,14 @@ var _ = Describe("ORAS beginners:", func() {
 				repo := fmt.Sprintf(repoFmt, "push", "password-stdin")
 				ORAS("blob", "push", RegistryRef(Host, repo, ""), "--password-stdin", "-").
 					ExpectFailure().
-					MatchTrimmedContent("Error: `-` read file from input and `--password-stdin` read password from input cannot be both used").Exec()
+					MatchErrKeyWords("Error: `-` read file from input and `--password-stdin` read password from input cannot be both used").Exec()
 			})
 			It("should fail to push a blob from stdin but no blob size provided", func() {
 				repo := fmt.Sprintf(repoFmt, "push", "no-size")
 				ORAS("blob", "push", RegistryRef(Host, repo, pushDigest), "-").
 					WithInput(strings.NewReader(pushContent)).
 					ExpectFailure().
-					MatchTrimmedContent("Error: `--size` must be provided if the blob is read from stdin").Exec()
+					MatchErrKeyWords("Error: `--size` must be provided if the blob is read from stdin").Exec()
 			})
 
 			It("should fail to push a blob from stdin if invalid blob size provided", func() {
diff --git a/test/e2e/suite/command/tag.go b/test/e2e/suite/command/tag.go
index f35b56f64..0878a7d7f 100644
--- a/test/e2e/suite/command/tag.go
+++ b/test/e2e/suite/command/tag.go
@@ -61,3 +61,61 @@ var _ = Describe("Common registry users:", func() {
 		})
 	})
 })
+
+var _ = Describe("OCI image layout users:", func() {
+	var tagAndValidate = func(root string, tagOrDigest string, digest string, tags ...string) {
+		out := ORAS(append([]string{"tag", LayoutRef(root, tagOrDigest), Flags.Layout}, tags...)...).MatchKeyWords(tags...).Exec().Out
+		hint := regexp.QuoteMeta(fmt.Sprintf("Tagging [oci-layout] %s", LayoutRef(root, digest)))
+		gomega.Expect(out).To(gbytes.Say(hint))
+		gomega.Expect(out).NotTo(gbytes.Say(hint)) // should only say hint once
+		ORAS("repo", "tags", Flags.Layout, LayoutRef(root, "")).MatchKeyWords(tags...).Exec()
+	}
+	When("running `tag`", func() {
+		prepare := func() string {
+			root := GinkgoT().TempDir()
+			ORAS("cp", RegistryRef(Host, ImageRepo, multi_arch.Tag), Flags.ToLayout, LayoutRef(root, multi_arch.Tag)).Exec()
+			return root
+		}
+		It("should add a tag to an existent manifest when providing tag reference", func() {
+			tagAndValidate(prepare(), multi_arch.Tag, multi_arch.Digest, "tag-via-tag")
+		})
+		It("should add a tag to an existent manifest when providing digest reference", func() {
+			tagAndValidate(prepare(), multi_arch.Digest, multi_arch.Digest, "tag-via-digest")
+		})
+		It("should add multiple tags to an existent manifest when providing digest reference", func() {
+			tagAndValidate(prepare(), multi_arch.Digest, multi_arch.Digest, "tag1-via-digest", "tag2-via-digest", "tag3-via-digest")
+		})
+		It("should add multiple tags to an existent manifest when providing tag reference", func() {
+			tagAndValidate(prepare(), multi_arch.Tag, multi_arch.Digest, "tag1-via-tag", "tag1-via-tag", "tag1-via-tag")
+		})
+	})
+})
+
+var _ = Describe("OCI image layout users:", func() {
+	var tagAndValidate = func(root string, tagOrDigest string, digest string, tags ...string) {
+		out := ORAS(append([]string{"tag", LayoutRef(root, tagOrDigest), Flags.Layout}, tags...)...).MatchKeyWords(tags...).Exec().Out
+		hint := regexp.QuoteMeta(fmt.Sprintf("Tagging [oci-layout] %s", LayoutRef(root, digest)))
+		gomega.Expect(out).To(gbytes.Say(hint))
+		gomega.Expect(out).NotTo(gbytes.Say(hint)) // should only say hint once
+		ORAS("repo", "tags", Flags.Layout, LayoutRef(root, "")).MatchKeyWords(tags...).Exec()
+	}
+	When("running `tag`", func() {
+		prepare := func() string {
+			root := GinkgoT().TempDir()
+			ORAS("cp", RegistryRef(Host, ImageRepo, multi_arch.Tag), Flags.ToLayout, LayoutRef(root, multi_arch.Tag)).Exec()
+			return root
+		}
+		It("should add a tag to an existent manifest when providing tag reference", func() {
+			tagAndValidate(prepare(), multi_arch.Tag, multi_arch.Digest, "tag-via-tag")
+		})
+		It("should add a tag to an existent manifest when providing digest reference", func() {
+			tagAndValidate(prepare(), multi_arch.Digest, multi_arch.Digest, "tag-via-digest")
+		})
+		It("should add multiple tags to an existent manifest when providing digest reference", func() {
+			tagAndValidate(prepare(), multi_arch.Digest, multi_arch.Digest, "tag1-via-digest", "tag2-via-digest", "tag3-via-digest")
+		})
+		It("should add multiple tags to an existent manifest when providing tag reference", func() {
+			tagAndValidate(prepare(), multi_arch.Tag, multi_arch.Digest, "tag1-via-tag", "tag1-via-tag", "tag1-via-tag")
+		})
+	})
+})