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<!DOCTYPE html>
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<title>ggplot2 | Practical Data Science</title>
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<li class='before'><a href="./">Practical Data Science</a></li>
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<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="intro.html"><a href="intro.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Introduction</a>
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<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="intro.html"><a href="intro.html#part-1-information-processing"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Part 1: Information Processing</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="intro.html"><a href="intro.html#part-2-programming-basics"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Part 2: Programming Basics</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="intro.html"><a href="intro.html#part-3-modeling"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Part 3: Modeling</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="intro.html"><a href="intro.html#part-4-visualization"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Part 4: Visualization</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="intro.html"><a href="intro.html#part-5-presentation"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Part 5: Presentation</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="intro.html"><a href="intro.html#workshops"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Workshops</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="intro.html"><a href="intro.html#other"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Other</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="intro.html"><a href="intro.html#python-notebooks"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Python notebooks</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="intro.html"><a href="intro.html#other-r-packages"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Other R packages</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="intro.html"><a href="intro.html#history"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>History</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="intro.html"><a href="intro.html#current-efforts"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Current Efforts</a></li>
</ul></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="part"><span><b>Part I: Information Processing</b></span></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="data_structures.html"><a href="data_structures.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Data Structures</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="data_structures.html"><a href="data_structures.html#vectors"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Vectors</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="data_structures.html"><a href="data_structures.html#character-strings"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Character strings</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="data_structures.html"><a href="data_structures.html#factors"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Factors</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="data_structures.html"><a href="data_structures.html#logicals"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Logicals</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="data_structures.html"><a href="data_structures.html#numeric-and-integer"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Numeric and integer</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="data_structures.html"><a href="data_structures.html#dates"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Dates</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="data_structures.html"><a href="data_structures.html#matrices"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Matrices</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="data_structures.html"><a href="data_structures.html#creating-a-matrix"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Creating a matrix</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="data_structures.html"><a href="data_structures.html#lists"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Lists</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="data_structures.html"><a href="data_structures.html#data-frames"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Data Frames</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="data_structures.html"><a href="data_structures.html#creating-a-data-frame"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Creating a data frame</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="data_structures.html"><a href="data_structures.html#data-structure-exercises"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Data Structure Exercises</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="data_structures.html"><a href="data_structures.html#exercise-1"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Exercise 1</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="data_structures.html"><a href="data_structures.html#exercise-2"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Exercise 2</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="data_structures.html"><a href="data_structures.html#thinking-exercises"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Thinking Exercises</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="data_structures.html"><a href="data_structures.html#python-data-structures-notebook"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Python Data Structures Notebook</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="io.html"><a href="io.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Input/Output</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="io.html"><a href="io.html#better-faster-approaches"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Better & Faster Approaches</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="io.html"><a href="io.html#r-specific-data"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>R-specific Data</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="io.html"><a href="io.html#r-datasets"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>R Datasets</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="io.html"><a href="io.html#other-types-of-data"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Other Types of Data</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="io.html"><a href="io.html#on-the-horizon"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>On the Horizon</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="io.html"><a href="io.html#big-data"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Big Data</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="io.html"><a href="io.html#io-exercises"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>I/O Exercises</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="io.html"><a href="io.html#exercise-1-1"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Exercise 1</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="io.html"><a href="io.html#thinking-exercises-1"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Thinking Exercises</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="io.html"><a href="io.html#python-io-notebook"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Python I/O Notebook</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="indexing.html"><a href="indexing.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Indexing</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="indexing.html"><a href="indexing.html#slicing-vectors"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Slicing Vectors</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="indexing.html"><a href="indexing.html#slicing-matricesdata.frames"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Slicing Matrices/data.frames</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="indexing.html"><a href="indexing.html#label-based-indexing"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Label-based Indexing</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="indexing.html"><a href="indexing.html#position-based-indexing"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Position-based Indexing</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="indexing.html"><a href="indexing.html#mixed-indexing"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Mixed Indexing</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="indexing.html"><a href="indexing.html#non-contiguous"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Non-contiguous</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="indexing.html"><a href="indexing.html#boolean"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Boolean</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="indexing.html"><a href="indexing.html#listdata.frame-extraction"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>List/data.frame Extraction</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="indexing.html"><a href="indexing.html#indexing-exercises"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Indexing Exercises</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="indexing.html"><a href="indexing.html#exercise-1-2"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Exercise 1</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="indexing.html"><a href="indexing.html#exercise-2-1"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Exercise 2</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="indexing.html"><a href="indexing.html#exercise-3"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Exercise 3</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="indexing.html"><a href="indexing.html#python-indexing-notebook"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Python Indexing Notebook</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="pipes.html"><a href="pipes.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Pipes</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="pipes.html"><a href="pipes.html#using-variables-as-they-are-created"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Using Variables as They are Created</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="pipes.html"><a href="pipes.html#pipes-for-visualization-more-later"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Pipes for Visualization (more later)</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="pipes.html"><a href="pipes.html#the-dot"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>The Dot</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="pipes.html"><a href="pipes.html#flexibility"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Flexibility</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="pipes.html"><a href="pipes.html#pipes-summary"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Pipes Summary</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="tidyverse.html"><a href="tidyverse.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Tidyverse</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="tidyverse.html"><a href="tidyverse.html#what-is-the-tidyverse"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>What is the Tidyverse?</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="tidyverse.html"><a href="tidyverse.html#what-is-tidy"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>What is Tidy?</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="tidyverse.html"><a href="tidyverse.html#dplyr"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>dplyr</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="tidyverse.html"><a href="tidyverse.html#an-example"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>An example</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="tidyverse.html"><a href="tidyverse.html#running-example"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Running Example</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="tidyverse.html"><a href="tidyverse.html#selecting-columns"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Selecting Columns</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="tidyverse.html"><a href="tidyverse.html#helper-functions"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Helper functions</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="tidyverse.html"><a href="tidyverse.html#filtering-rows"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Filtering Rows</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="tidyverse.html"><a href="tidyverse.html#generating-new-data"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Generating New Data</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="tidyverse.html"><a href="tidyverse.html#grouping-and-summarizing-data"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Grouping and Summarizing Data</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="tidyverse.html"><a href="tidyverse.html#renaming-columns"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Renaming Columns</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="tidyverse.html"><a href="tidyverse.html#merging-data"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Merging Data</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="tidyverse.html"><a href="tidyverse.html#pivoting-axes"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Pivoting axes</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="tidyverse.html"><a href="tidyverse.html#more-tidyverse"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>More Tidyverse</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="tidyverse.html"><a href="tidyverse.html#personal-opinion"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Personal Opinion</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="tidyverse.html"><a href="tidyverse.html#tidyverse-exercises"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Tidyverse Exercises</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="tidyverse.html"><a href="tidyverse.html#exercise-0"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Exercise 0</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="tidyverse.html"><a href="tidyverse.html#exercise-1-3"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Exercise 1</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="tidyverse.html"><a href="tidyverse.html#exercise-2-2"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Exercise 2</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="tidyverse.html"><a href="tidyverse.html#exercise-3-1"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Exercise 3</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="tidyverse.html"><a href="tidyverse.html#exercise-4"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Exercise 4</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="tidyverse.html"><a href="tidyverse.html#python-pandas-notebook"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Python Pandas Notebook</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="data_table.html"><a href="data_table.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>data.table</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="data_table.html"><a href="data_table.html#data.table-basics"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>data.table Basics</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="data_table.html"><a href="data_table.html#grouped-operations"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Grouped Operations</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="data_table.html"><a href="data_table.html#faster"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Faster!</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="data_table.html"><a href="data_table.html#joins"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Joins</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="data_table.html"><a href="data_table.html#group-by"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Group by</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="data_table.html"><a href="data_table.html#string-matching"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>String matching</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="data_table.html"><a href="data_table.html#reading-files"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Reading files</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="data_table.html"><a href="data_table.html#more-speed"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>More speed</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="data_table.html"><a href="data_table.html#pipe-with-data.table"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Pipe with data.table</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="data_table.html"><a href="data_table.html#data.table-summary"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>data.table Summary</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="data_table.html"><a href="data_table.html#faster-dplyr-alternatives"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Faster dplyr Alternatives</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="data_table.html"><a href="data_table.html#data.table-exercises"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>data.table Exercises</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="data_table.html"><a href="data_table.html#exercise-0-1"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Exercise 0</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="data_table.html"><a href="data_table.html#exercise-1-4"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Exercise 1</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="data_table.html"><a href="data_table.html#exercise-2-3"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Exercise 2</a></li>
</ul></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="part"><span><b>Part II: Programming</b></span></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="programming.html"><a href="programming.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Programming Basics</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="programming.html"><a href="programming.html#r-objects"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>R Objects</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="programming.html"><a href="programming.html#object-inspection-exploration"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Object Inspection & Exploration</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="programming.html"><a href="programming.html#methods"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Methods</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="programming.html"><a href="programming.html#s4-classes"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>S4 classes</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="programming.html"><a href="programming.html#others"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Others</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="programming.html"><a href="programming.html#inspecting-functions"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Inspecting Functions</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="programming.html"><a href="programming.html#documentation"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Documentation</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="programming.html"><a href="programming.html#objects-exercises"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Objects Exercises</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="iterative.html"><a href="iterative.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Iterative Programming</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="iterative.html"><a href="iterative.html#for-loops"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>For Loops</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="iterative.html"><a href="iterative.html#a-slight-speed-gain"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>A slight speed gain</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="iterative.html"><a href="iterative.html#while-alternative"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>While alternative</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="iterative.html"><a href="iterative.html#loops-summary"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Loops summary</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="iterative.html"><a href="iterative.html#implicit-loops"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Implicit Loops</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="iterative.html"><a href="iterative.html#apply-family"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>apply family</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="iterative.html"><a href="iterative.html#apply-functions"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Apply functions</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="iterative.html"><a href="iterative.html#purrr"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>purrr</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="iterative.html"><a href="iterative.html#looping-with-lists"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Looping with Lists</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="iterative.html"><a href="iterative.html#iterative-programming-exercises"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Iterative Programming Exercises</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="iterative.html"><a href="iterative.html#exercise-1-5"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Exercise 1</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="iterative.html"><a href="iterative.html#exercise-2-4"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Exercise 2</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="iterative.html"><a href="iterative.html#exercise-3-2"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Exercise 3</a></li>
</ul></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="functions.html"><a href="functions.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Writing Functions</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="functions.html"><a href="functions.html#a-starting-point"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>A Starting Point</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="functions.html"><a href="functions.html#dry"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>DRY</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="functions.html"><a href="functions.html#conditionals"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Conditionals</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="functions.html"><a href="functions.html#anonymous-functions"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Anonymous functions</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="functions.html"><a href="functions.html#writing-functions-exercises"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Writing Functions Exercises</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="functions.html"><a href="functions.html#excercise-1"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Excercise 1</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="functions.html"><a href="functions.html#excercise-1b"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Excercise 1b</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="functions.html"><a href="functions.html#exercise-2-5"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Exercise 2</a></li>
</ul></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="more.html"><a href="more.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>More Programming</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="more.html"><a href="more.html#code-style"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Code Style</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="more.html"><a href="more.html#why-does-your-code-exist"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Why does your code exist?</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="more.html"><a href="more.html#assignment"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Assignment</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="more.html"><a href="more.html#code-length"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Code length</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="more.html"><a href="more.html#spacing"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Spacing</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="more.html"><a href="more.html#naming-things"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Naming things</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="more.html"><a href="more.html#other-1"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Other</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="more.html"><a href="more.html#vectorization"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Vectorization</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="more.html"><a href="more.html#boolean-indexing"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Boolean indexing</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="more.html"><a href="more.html#vectorized-operations"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Vectorized operations</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="more.html"><a href="more.html#regular-expressions"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Regular Expressions</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="more.html"><a href="more.html#typical-uses"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Typical uses</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="more.html"><a href="more.html#code-style-exercises"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Code Style Exercises</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="more.html"><a href="more.html#exercise-1-6"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Exercise 1</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="more.html"><a href="more.html#exercise-2-6"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Exercise 2</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="more.html"><a href="more.html#vectorization-exercises"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Vectorization Exercises</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="more.html"><a href="more.html#exercise-1-7"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Exercise 1</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="more.html"><a href="more.html#exercise-2-7"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Exercise 2</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="more.html"><a href="more.html#regex-exercises"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Regex Exercises</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="more.html"><a href="more.html#exercise-1-8"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Exercise 1</a></li>
</ul></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="part"><span><b>Part III: Modeling</b></span></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="models.html"><a href="models.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Model Exploration</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="models.html"><a href="models.html#model-taxonomy"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Model Taxonomy</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="models.html"><a href="models.html#linear-models"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Linear models</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="models.html"><a href="models.html#estimation"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Estimation</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="models.html"><a href="models.html#minimizing-and-maximizing"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Minimizing and maximizing</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="models.html"><a href="models.html#optimization"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Optimization</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="models.html"><a href="models.html#fitting-models"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Fitting Models</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="models.html"><a href="models.html#using-matrices"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Using matrices</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="models.html"><a href="models.html#summarizing-models"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Summarizing Models</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="models.html"><a href="models.html#variable-transformations"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Variable Transformations</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="models.html"><a href="models.html#numeric-variables"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Numeric variables</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="models.html"><a href="models.html#categorical-variables"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Categorical variables</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="models.html"><a href="models.html#scales-indices-and-dimension-reduction"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Scales, indices, and dimension reduction</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="models.html"><a href="models.html#dont-discretize"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Don’t discretize</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="models.html"><a href="models.html#variable-importance"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Variable Importance</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="models.html"><a href="models.html#extracting-output"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Extracting Output</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="models.html"><a href="models.html#package-support"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Package support</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="models.html"><a href="models.html#visualization"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Visualization</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="models.html"><a href="models.html#extensions-to-the-standard-linear-model"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Extensions to the Standard Linear Model</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="models.html"><a href="models.html#different-types-of-targets"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Different types of targets</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="models.html"><a href="models.html#correlated-data"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Correlated data</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="models.html"><a href="models.html#other-extensions"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Other extensions</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="models.html"><a href="models.html#model-exploration-summary"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Model Exploration Summary</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="models.html"><a href="models.html#model-exploration-exercises"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Model Exploration Exercises</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="models.html"><a href="models.html#exercise-1-9"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Exercise 1</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="models.html"><a href="models.html#exercise-2-8"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Exercise 2</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="models.html"><a href="models.html#exercise-3-3"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Exercise 3</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="models.html"><a href="models.html#python-model-exploration-notebook"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Python Model Exploration Notebook</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="model_criticism.html"><a href="model_criticism.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Model Criticism</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="model_criticism.html"><a href="model_criticism.html#model-fit"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Model Fit</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="model_criticism.html"><a href="model_criticism.html#standard-linear-model"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Standard linear model</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="model_criticism.html"><a href="model_criticism.html#beyond-ols"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Beyond OLS</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="model_criticism.html"><a href="model_criticism.html#classification"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Classification</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="model_criticism.html"><a href="model_criticism.html#model-assumptions"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Model Assumptions</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="model_criticism.html"><a href="model_criticism.html#predictive-performance"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Predictive Performance</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="model_criticism.html"><a href="model_criticism.html#model-comparison"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Model Comparison</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="model_criticism.html"><a href="model_criticism.html#example-additional-covariates"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Example: Additional covariates</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="model_criticism.html"><a href="model_criticism.html#example-interactions"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Example: Interactions</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="model_criticism.html"><a href="model_criticism.html#example-additive-models"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Example: Additive models</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="model_criticism.html"><a href="model_criticism.html#model-averaging"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Model Averaging</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="model_criticism.html"><a href="model_criticism.html#model-criticism-summary"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Model Criticism Summary</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="model_criticism.html"><a href="model_criticism.html#model-criticism-exercises"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Model Criticism Exercises</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="model_criticism.html"><a href="model_criticism.html#exercise-0-2"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Exercise 0</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="model_criticism.html"><a href="model_criticism.html#exercise-1-10"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Exercise 1</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="model_criticism.html"><a href="model_criticism.html#exercise-2-9"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Exercise 2</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="model_criticism.html"><a href="model_criticism.html#python-model-criticism-notebook"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Python Model Criticism Notebook</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="ml.html"><a href="ml.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Machine Learning</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="ml.html"><a href="ml.html#concepts"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Concepts</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="ml.html"><a href="ml.html#loss"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Loss</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="ml.html"><a href="ml.html#bias-variance-tradeoff"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Bias-variance tradeoff</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="ml.html"><a href="ml.html#regularization"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Regularization</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="ml.html"><a href="ml.html#cross-validation"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Cross-validation</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="ml.html"><a href="ml.html#optimization-1"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Optimization</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="ml.html"><a href="ml.html#tuning-parameters"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Tuning parameters</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="ml.html"><a href="ml.html#techniques"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Techniques</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="ml.html"><a href="ml.html#regularized-regression"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Regularized regression</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="ml.html"><a href="ml.html#random-forests"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Random forests</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="ml.html"><a href="ml.html#neural-networks"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Neural networks</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="ml.html"><a href="ml.html#interpreting-the-black-box"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Interpreting the Black Box</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="ml.html"><a href="ml.html#machine-learning-summary"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Machine Learning Summary</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="ml.html"><a href="ml.html#machine-learning-exercises"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Machine Learning Exercises</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="ml.html"><a href="ml.html#exercise-1-11"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Exercise 1</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="ml.html"><a href="ml.html#exercise-2-10"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Exercise 2</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="ml.html"><a href="ml.html#python-machine-learning-notebook"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Python Machine Learning Notebook</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="part"><span><b>Part IV: Visualization</b></span></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="ggplot2.html"><a href="ggplot2.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>ggplot2</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="ggplot2.html"><a href="ggplot2.html#layers"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Layers</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="ggplot2.html"><a href="ggplot2.html#piping"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Piping</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="ggplot2.html"><a href="ggplot2.html#aesthetics"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Aesthetics</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="ggplot2.html"><a href="ggplot2.html#geoms"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Geoms</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="ggplot2.html"><a href="ggplot2.html#examples"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Examples</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="ggplot2.html"><a href="ggplot2.html#stats"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Stats</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="ggplot2.html"><a href="ggplot2.html#scales"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Scales</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="ggplot2.html"><a href="ggplot2.html#facets"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Facets</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="ggplot2.html"><a href="ggplot2.html#multiple-plots"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Multiple plots</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="ggplot2.html"><a href="ggplot2.html#fine-control"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Fine control</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="ggplot2.html"><a href="ggplot2.html#themes"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Themes</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="ggplot2.html"><a href="ggplot2.html#extensions"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Extensions</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="ggplot2.html"><a href="ggplot2.html#ggplot2-summary"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>ggplot2 Summary</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="ggplot2.html"><a href="ggplot2.html#ggplot2-exercises"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>ggplot2 Exercises</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="ggplot2.html"><a href="ggplot2.html#exercise-0-3"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Exercise 0</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="ggplot2.html"><a href="ggplot2.html#exercise-1-12"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Exercise 1</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="ggplot2.html"><a href="ggplot2.html#exercise-2-11"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Exercise 2</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="ggplot2.html"><a href="ggplot2.html#python-plotnine-notebook"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Python Plotnine Notebook</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="interactive.html"><a href="interactive.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Interactive Visualization</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="interactive.html"><a href="interactive.html#packages"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Packages</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="interactive.html"><a href="interactive.html#piping-for-visualization"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Piping for Visualization</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="interactive.html"><a href="interactive.html#htmlwidgets"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>htmlwidgets</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="interactive.html"><a href="interactive.html#plotly"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Plotly</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="interactive.html"><a href="interactive.html#modes"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Modes</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="interactive.html"><a href="interactive.html#ggplotly"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>ggplotly</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="interactive.html"><a href="interactive.html#highcharter"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Highcharter</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="interactive.html"><a href="interactive.html#graph-networks"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Graph networks</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="interactive.html"><a href="interactive.html#visnetwork"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>visNetwork</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="interactive.html"><a href="interactive.html#sigmajs"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>sigmajs</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="interactive.html"><a href="interactive.html#plotly-1"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Plotly</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="interactive.html"><a href="interactive.html#leaflet"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>leaflet</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="interactive.html"><a href="interactive.html#dt"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>DT</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="interactive.html"><a href="interactive.html#shiny"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Shiny</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="interactive.html"><a href="interactive.html#dash"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Dash</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="interactive.html"><a href="interactive.html#interactive-and-visual-data-exploration"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Interactive and Visual Data Exploration</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="interactive.html"><a href="interactive.html#interactive-visualization-exercises"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Interactive Visualization Exercises</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="interactive.html"><a href="interactive.html#exercise-0-4"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Exercise 0</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="interactive.html"><a href="interactive.html#exercise-1-13"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Exercise 1</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="interactive.html"><a href="interactive.html#exercise-2-12"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Exercise 2</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="interactive.html"><a href="interactive.html#exercise-3-4"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Exercise 3</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="interactive.html"><a href="interactive.html#python-interactive-visualization-notebook"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Python Interactive Visualization Notebook</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="thinking_vis.html"><a href="thinking_vis.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Thinking Visually</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="thinking_vis.html"><a href="thinking_vis.html#information"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Information</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="thinking_vis.html"><a href="thinking_vis.html#your-audience-isnt-dumb"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Your audience isn’t dumb</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="thinking_vis.html"><a href="thinking_vis.html#clarity-is-key"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Clarity is key</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="thinking_vis.html"><a href="thinking_vis.html#avoid-clutter"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Avoid clutter</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="thinking_vis.html"><a href="thinking_vis.html#color-isnt-optional"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Color isn’t optional</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="thinking_vis.html"><a href="thinking_vis.html#think-interactively"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Think interactively</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="thinking_vis.html"><a href="thinking_vis.html#color"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Color</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="thinking_vis.html"><a href="thinking_vis.html#viridis"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Viridis</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="thinking_vis.html"><a href="thinking_vis.html#scientific-colors"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Scientific colors</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="thinking_vis.html"><a href="thinking_vis.html#rcolorbrewer"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>RColorBrewer</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="thinking_vis.html"><a href="thinking_vis.html#contrast"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Contrast</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="thinking_vis.html"><a href="thinking_vis.html#scaling-size"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Scaling Size</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="thinking_vis.html"><a href="thinking_vis.html#transparency"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Transparency</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="thinking_vis.html"><a href="thinking_vis.html#accessibility"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Accessibility</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="thinking_vis.html"><a href="thinking_vis.html#file-types"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>File Types</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="thinking_vis.html"><a href="thinking_vis.html#summary-of-thinking-visually"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Summary of Thinking Visually</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="thinking_vis.html"><a href="thinking_vis.html#a-casual-list-of-things-to-avoid"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>A casual list of things to avoid</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="thinking_vis.html"><a href="thinking_vis.html#pie"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Pie</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="thinking_vis.html"><a href="thinking_vis.html#histograms"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Histograms</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="thinking_vis.html"><a href="thinking_vis.html#using-3d-without-adding-any-communicative-value"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Using 3D without adding any communicative value</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="thinking_vis.html"><a href="thinking_vis.html#using-too-many-colors"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Using too many colors</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="thinking_vis.html"><a href="thinking_vis.html#using-valenced-colors-when-data-isnt-applicable"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Using valenced colors when data isn’t applicable</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="thinking_vis.html"><a href="thinking_vis.html#showing-maps-that-just-display-population"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Showing maps that just display population</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="thinking_vis.html"><a href="thinking_vis.html#biplots"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Biplots</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="thinking_vis.html"><a href="thinking_vis.html#thinking-visually-exercises"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Thinking Visually Exercises</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="thinking_vis.html"><a href="thinking_vis.html#exercise-1-14"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Exercise 1</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="thinking_vis.html"><a href="thinking_vis.html#exercise-2-13"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Exercise 2</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="thinking_vis.html"><a href="thinking_vis.html#thinking-exercises-2"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Thinking exercises</a></li>
</ul></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="part"><span><b>Part V: Presentation</b></span></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="reproducibility.html"><a href="reproducibility.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Building Better Data-Driven Products</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="reproducibility.html"><a href="reproducibility.html#rep-analysis"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Rep* Analysis</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="reproducibility.html"><a href="reproducibility.html#example"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Example</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="reproducibility.html"><a href="reproducibility.html#repeatable"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Repeatable</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="reproducibility.html"><a href="reproducibility.html#reproducible"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Reproducible</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="reproducibility.html"><a href="reproducibility.html#replicable"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Replicable</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="reproducibility.html"><a href="reproducibility.html#summary-of-rep-analysis"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Summary of rep* analysis</a></li>
</ul></li>
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<i class="fa fa-circle-o-notch fa-spin"></i><a href="./">Practical Data Science</a>
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<section class="normal" id="section-">
<div id="ggplot2" class="section level1">
<h1>ggplot2</h1>
<p><img src="img/hex_ggplot.svg" style="display:block; margin: 0 auto; width: 25%" ></p>
<p><br></p>
<p>Visualization is key to telling the data’s story, and it can take a lot of work to get things to look just right. But, it can also be a lot of fun, so let’s dive in!</p>
<p>When it comes to visualization, the most <a href="https://r-pkg.org/downloaded">popular</a> package used in R is <span class="pack">ggplot2</span>. It’s so popular, it or its aesthetic is even copied in other languages/programs as well. It entails a <span class="emph">grammar of graphics</span> (hence the <strong>gg</strong>), and learning that grammar is key to using it effectively. Some of the strengths of <span class="pack">ggplot2</span> include:</p>
<ul>
<li>The ease of getting a good looking plot</li>
<li>Easy customization</li>
<li>A lot of necessary data processing is done for you</li>
<li>Clear syntax</li>
<li>Easy multidimensional approach</li>
<li>Decent default color scheme as a default</li>
<li><em>Lots</em> of extensions</li>
</ul>
<p>Every graph is built from the same few parts, and it’s important to be aware of a few key ideas, which we will cover in turn.</p>
<ul>
<li>Layers (and geoms)</li>
<li>Piping</li>
<li>Aesthetics</li>
<li>Facets</li>
<li>Scales</li>
<li>Themes</li>
<li>Extensions</li>
</ul>
<p>Note that while you can obviously use base R for visualization, it’s not going to be as easy or as flexible as <span class="pack">ggplot2</span>.</p>
<div id="layers" class="section level2">
<h2>Layers</h2>
<p>In general, we start with a base layer and add to it. In most cases you’ll start as follows.</p>
<div class="sourceCode" id="cb518"><pre class="sourceCode r"><code class="sourceCode r"><span id="cb518-1"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb518-1"></a><span class="co"># recall that starwars is in the dplyr package</span></span>
<span id="cb518-2"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb518-2"></a><span class="kw">ggplot</span>(<span class="kw">aes</span>(<span class="dt">x =</span> height, <span class="dt">y =</span> mass), <span class="dt">data =</span> starwars)</span></code></pre></div>
<p>The code above would just produce a plot background, but nothing else. However, with the foundation in place, we’re now ready to add something to it. Let’s add some points (the outlier is Jabba the Hut).</p>
<div class="sourceCode" id="cb519"><pre class="sourceCode r"><code class="sourceCode r"><span id="cb519-1"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb519-1"></a><span class="kw">ggplot</span>(<span class="kw">aes</span>(<span class="dt">x =</span> height, <span class="dt">y =</span> mass), <span class="dt">data =</span> starwars) <span class="op">+</span></span>
<span id="cb519-2"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb519-2"></a><span class="st"> </span><span class="kw">geom_point</span>()</span></code></pre></div>
<p><img src="practical-data-science_files/figure-html/layer2-1.svg" width="75%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" /></p>
<p>Perhaps we want to change labels or theme. These would be additional layers to the plot.</p>
<div class="sourceCode" id="cb520"><pre class="sourceCode r"><code class="sourceCode r"><span id="cb520-1"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb520-1"></a><span class="kw">ggplot</span>(<span class="kw">aes</span>(<span class="dt">x =</span> height, <span class="dt">y =</span> mass), <span class="dt">data =</span> starwars) <span class="op">+</span></span>
<span id="cb520-2"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb520-2"></a><span class="st"> </span><span class="kw">geom_point</span>(<span class="dt">color =</span> <span class="st">'white'</span>) <span class="op">+</span></span>
<span id="cb520-3"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb520-3"></a><span class="st"> </span><span class="kw">labs</span>(<span class="dt">x =</span> <span class="st">'Height in cm'</span>, <span class="dt">y =</span> <span class="st">'Weight in kg'</span>) <span class="op">+</span></span>
<span id="cb520-4"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb520-4"></a><span class="st"> </span><span class="kw">theme_dark</span>()</span></code></pre></div>
<p><img src="practical-data-science_files/figure-html/layer3-1.svg" width="75%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" /></p>
<p>Each layer is consecutively added by means of a pipe operator, and layers may regard geoms, scales, labels, facets etc. You may have many different layers to produce one plot, and there really is no limit. However some efficiencies may be possible for a given situation. For example, it’s more straightforward to use <span class="func">geom_smooth</span> than calculate fits, standard errors etc. and then add multiple geoms to produce the same thing. This is the sort of thing you’ll get used to as you use ggplot more.</p>
</div>
<div id="piping" class="section level2">
<h2>Piping</h2>
<p>As we saw, <span class="emph">layers</span> are added via piping (<span class="emph">+</span>). The first layers added after the base are typically <span class="emph">geoms</span>, or geometric objects that represent the data, and include things like:</p>
<ul>
<li>points</li>
<li>lines</li>
<li>density</li>
<li>text</li>
</ul>
<p>In case you’re wondering why ggplot doesn’t use <code>%>%</code> as in the tidyverse and other visualization packages, it’s because <span class="pack">ggplot2</span> was using pipes before it was cool, well before those came along. Otherwise, the concept is the same as we saw in the <a href="pipes.html#pipes">data processing section</a>.</p>
<div class="sourceCode" id="cb521"><pre class="sourceCode r"><code class="sourceCode r"><span id="cb521-1"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb521-1"></a><span class="kw">ggplot</span>(<span class="kw">aes</span>(<span class="dt">x =</span> myvar, <span class="dt">y =</span> myvar2), <span class="dt">data =</span> mydata) <span class="op">+</span></span>
<span id="cb521-2"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb521-2"></a><span class="st"> </span><span class="kw">geom_point</span>()</span></code></pre></div>
<p>Our base is provided via the <span class="func">ggplot</span> function, and specifies the data at the very least, but commonly also the x and y aesthetics.</p>
<p>The <span class="func">geom_point</span> function adds a layer of points, and now we would have a scatterplot. Alternatively, you could have specified the x and y aesthetic at the geom_point layer, but if you’re going to have the same x, y, color, etc. aesthetics regardless of layer, put it in the base. Otherwise, doing it by layer gives you more flexibility if needed. Geoms even have their own data argument, allowing you to combine information from several sources for a single visualization.</p>
</div>
<div id="aesthetics" class="section level2">
<h2>Aesthetics</h2>
<p><span class="emph">Aesthetics</span> map data to various visual aspects of the plot, including size, color etc. The function used in ggplot to do this is <span class="func">aes</span>.</p>
<div class="sourceCode" id="cb522"><pre class="sourceCode r"><code class="sourceCode r"><span id="cb522-1"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb522-1"></a><span class="kw">aes</span>(</span>
<span id="cb522-2"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb522-2"></a> <span class="dt">x =</span> myvar,</span>
<span id="cb522-3"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb522-3"></a> <span class="dt">y =</span> myvar2,</span>
<span id="cb522-4"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb522-4"></a> <span class="dt">color =</span> myvar3,</span>
<span id="cb522-5"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb522-5"></a> <span class="dt">group =</span> g</span>
<span id="cb522-6"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb522-6"></a>)</span></code></pre></div>
<p>The best way to understand what goes into the <span class="func">aes</span> function is if the value is varying. For example, if I want the size of points to be a certain value, I would code the following.</p>
<div class="sourceCode" id="cb523"><pre class="sourceCode r"><code class="sourceCode r"><span id="cb523-1"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb523-1"></a>... <span class="op">+</span></span>
<span id="cb523-2"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb523-2"></a><span class="st"> </span><span class="kw">geom_point</span>(..., <span class="dt">size =</span> <span class="dv">4</span>)</span></code></pre></div>
<p>However, if I want the size to be associated with the data in some way, I use it as an aesthetic.</p>
<div class="sourceCode" id="cb524"><pre class="sourceCode r"><code class="sourceCode r"><span id="cb524-1"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb524-1"></a>... <span class="op">+</span></span>
<span id="cb524-2"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb524-2"></a><span class="st"> </span><span class="kw">geom_point</span>(<span class="kw">aes</span>(<span class="dt">size =</span> myvar))</span></code></pre></div>
<p>The same goes for practically any aspect of a geom- size, color, fill, etc. If it is a fixed value, set it outside the aesthetic. If it varies based on the data, put it within an aesthetic.</p>
</div>
<div id="geoms" class="section level2">
<h2>Geoms</h2>
<p>In the ggplot2 world, geoms are the geometric objects- shapes, lines, and other parts of the visualization we want to display. Even if you use ggplot2 a lot, you probably didn’t know about many or most of these.</p>
<div style="font-size:75%">
<ul>
<li><span class="func">geom_abline</span>: Reference lines: horizontal, vertical, and diagonal</li>
<li><span class="func">geom_area</span>: Ribbons and area plots</li>
<li><span class="func">geom_bar</span>: Bar charts</li>
<li><span class="func">geom_bin2d</span>: Heatmap of 2d bin counts</li>
<li><span class="func">geom_blank</span>: Draw nothing</li>
<li><span class="func">geom_boxplot</span>: A box and whiskers plot (in the style of Tukey)</li>
<li><span class="func">geom_col</span>: Bar charts</li>
<li><span class="func">geom_contour</span>: 2d contours of a 3d surface</li>
<li><span class="func">geom_count</span>: Count overlapping points</li>
<li><span class="func">geom_crossbar</span>: Vertical intervals: lines, crossbars & errorbars</li>
<li><span class="func">geom_curve</span>: Line segments and curves</li>
<li><span class="func">geom_density</span>: Smoothed density estimates</li>
<li><span class="func">geom_density_2d</span>: Contours of a 2d density estimate</li>
<li><span class="func">geom_dotplot</span>: Dot plot</li>
<li><span class="func">geom_errorbar</span>: Vertical intervals: lines, crossbars & errorbars</li>
<li><span class="func">geom_errorbarh</span>: Horizontal error bars</li>
<li><span class="func">geom_freqpoly</span>: Histograms and frequency polygons</li>
<li><span class="func">geom_hex</span>: Hexagonal heatmap of 2d bin counts</li>
<li><span class="func">geom_histogram</span>: Histograms and frequency polygons</li>
<li><span class="func">geom_hline</span>: Reference lines: horizontal, vertical, and diagonal</li>
<li><span class="func">geom_jitter</span>: Jittered points</li>
<li><span class="func">geom_label</span>: Text</li>
<li><span class="func">geom_line</span>: Connect observations</li>
<li><span class="func">geom_linerange</span>: Vertical intervals: lines, crossbars & errorbars</li>
<li><span class="func">geom_map</span>: Polygons from a reference map</li>
<li><span class="func">geom_path</span>: Connect observations</li>
<li><span class="func">geom_point</span>: Points</li>
<li><span class="func">geom_pointrange</span>: Vertical intervals: lines, crossbars & errorbars</li>
<li><span class="func">geom_polygon</span>: Polygons</li>
<li><span class="func">geom_qq</span>: A quantile-quantile plot</li>
<li><span class="func">geom_qq_line</span>: A quantile-quantile plot</li>
<li><span class="func">geom_quantile</span>: Quantile regression</li>
<li><span class="func">geom_raster</span>: Rectangles</li>
<li><span class="func">geom_rect</span>: Rectangles</li>
<li><span class="func">geom_ribbon</span>: Ribbons and area plots</li>
<li><span class="func">geom_rug</span>: Rug plots in the margins</li>
<li><span class="func">geom_segment</span>: Line segments and curves</li>
<li><span class="func">geom_sf</span>: Visualise sf objects</li>
<li><span class="func">geom_sf_label</span>: Visualise sf objects</li>
<li><span class="func">geom_sf_text</span>: Visualise sf objects</li>
<li><span class="func">geom_smooth</span>: Smoothed conditional means</li>
<li><span class="func">geom_spoke</span>: Line segments parameterised by location, direction and distance</li>
<li><span class="func">geom_step</span>: Connect observations</li>
<li><span class="func">geom_text</span>: Text</li>
<li><span class="func">geom_tile</span>: Rectangles</li>
<li><span class="func">geom_violin</span>: Violin plot</li>
<li><span class="func">geom_vline</span>: Reference lines: horizontal, vertical, and diagonal</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
<div id="examples" class="section level2">
<h2>Examples</h2>
<p>Let’s get more of a feel for things by seeing some examples that demonstrate some geoms and aesthetics.</p>
<p>To begin, after setting the base aesthetic, we’ll set some explicit values for the geom.</p>
<div class="sourceCode" id="cb525"><pre class="sourceCode r"><code class="sourceCode r"><span id="cb525-1"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb525-1"></a><span class="kw">library</span>(ggplot2)</span>
<span id="cb525-2"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb525-2"></a></span>
<span id="cb525-3"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb525-3"></a><span class="kw">data</span>(<span class="st">"diamonds"</span>)</span>
<span id="cb525-4"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb525-4"></a></span>
<span id="cb525-5"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb525-5"></a><span class="kw">data</span>(<span class="st">'economics'</span>)</span>
<span id="cb525-6"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb525-6"></a></span>
<span id="cb525-7"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb525-7"></a><span class="kw">ggplot</span>(<span class="kw">aes</span>(<span class="dt">x =</span> carat, <span class="dt">y =</span> price), <span class="dt">data =</span> diamonds) <span class="op">+</span></span>
<span id="cb525-8"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb525-8"></a><span class="st"> </span><span class="kw">geom_point</span>(<span class="dt">size =</span> <span class="fl">.5</span>, <span class="dt">color =</span> <span class="st">'peru'</span>)</span></code></pre></div>
<p><img src="practical-data-science_files/figure-html/ggscatter-1.png" width="75%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" /></p>
<p>Next we use two different geoms, and one is even using a different data source. Note that geoms have arguments both common and specific to them. In the following, <code>label</code> is used for <span class="func">geom_text</span>, but it would be ignored by <span class="func">geom_line</span>.</p>
<div class="sourceCode" id="cb526"><pre class="sourceCode r"><code class="sourceCode r"><span id="cb526-1"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb526-1"></a><span class="kw">ggplot</span>(<span class="kw">aes</span>(<span class="dt">x =</span> date, <span class="dt">y =</span> unemploy), <span class="dt">data =</span> economics) <span class="op">+</span></span>
<span id="cb526-2"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb526-2"></a><span class="st"> </span><span class="kw">geom_line</span>() <span class="op">+</span></span>
<span id="cb526-3"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb526-3"></a><span class="st"> </span><span class="kw">geom_text</span>(</span>
<span id="cb526-4"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb526-4"></a> <span class="kw">aes</span>(<span class="dt">label =</span> unemploy),</span>
<span id="cb526-5"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb526-5"></a> <span class="dt">vjust =</span> <span class="fl">-.5</span>,</span>
<span id="cb526-6"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb526-6"></a> <span class="dt">data =</span> <span class="kw">filter</span>(economics, date <span class="op">==</span><span class="st"> '2009-10-01'</span>)</span>
<span id="cb526-7"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb526-7"></a> )</span></code></pre></div>
<p><img src="practical-data-science_files/figure-html/ggline-1.svg" width="75%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" /></p>
<p>In the following, one setting, alpha (transparency), is not mapped to the data, while size and color are<a href="#fn45" class="footnote-ref" id="fnref45"><sup>45</sup></a>.</p>
<div class="sourceCode" id="cb527"><pre class="sourceCode r"><code class="sourceCode r"><span id="cb527-1"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb527-1"></a><span class="kw">ggplot</span>(<span class="kw">aes</span>(<span class="dt">x =</span> carat, <span class="dt">y =</span> price), <span class="dt">data =</span> diamonds) <span class="op">+</span></span>
<span id="cb527-2"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb527-2"></a><span class="st"> </span><span class="kw">geom_point</span>(<span class="kw">aes</span>(<span class="dt">size =</span> carat, <span class="dt">color =</span> clarity), <span class="dt">alpha =</span> <span class="fl">.05</span>) </span></code></pre></div>
<p><img src="practical-data-science_files/figure-html/ggalpha-1.png" width="75%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" /></p>
<p>There are some other options to play with as well.</p>
<div class="sourceCode" id="cb528"><pre class="sourceCode r"><code class="sourceCode r"><span id="cb528-1"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb528-1"></a><span class="kw">ggplot</span>(<span class="kw">aes</span>(<span class="dt">x =</span> carat, <span class="dt">y =</span> price), <span class="dt">data =</span> diamonds <span class="op">%>%</span><span class="st"> </span><span class="kw">sample_frac</span>(.<span class="dv">01</span>)) <span class="op">+</span></span>
<span id="cb528-2"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb528-2"></a><span class="st"> </span><span class="kw">geom_point</span>(<span class="kw">aes</span>(<span class="dt">size =</span> carat, <span class="dt">color =</span> clarity), <span class="dt">key_glyph =</span> <span class="st">"vpath"</span>)</span></code></pre></div>
<p><img src="practical-data-science_files/figure-html/key_glyphs-1.svg" width="75%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" /></p>
</div>
<div id="stats" class="section level2">
<h2>Stats</h2>
<p>There are many statistical functions built in, and it is a key strength of ggplot that you don’t have to do a lot of processing for very common plots.</p>
<p>Her are some quantile regression lines:</p>
<div class="sourceCode" id="cb529"><pre class="sourceCode r"><code class="sourceCode r"><span id="cb529-1"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb529-1"></a><span class="kw">ggplot</span>(mpg, <span class="kw">aes</span>(<span class="dt">x =</span> displ, <span class="dt">y =</span> hwy)) <span class="op">+</span></span>
<span id="cb529-2"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb529-2"></a><span class="st"> </span><span class="kw">geom_point</span>() <span class="op">+</span></span>
<span id="cb529-3"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb529-3"></a><span class="st"> </span><span class="kw">geom_quantile</span>()</span></code></pre></div>
<p><img src="practical-data-science_files/figure-html/ggquant-1.svg" width="75%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" /></p>
<p>The following shows loess (or additive model) smooths. We can do some fine-tuning and use model-based approaches for visualization.</p>
<div class="sourceCode" id="cb530"><pre class="sourceCode r"><code class="sourceCode r"><span id="cb530-1"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb530-1"></a><span class="kw">data</span>(mcycle, <span class="dt">package =</span> <span class="st">'MASS'</span>)</span>
<span id="cb530-2"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb530-2"></a></span>
<span id="cb530-3"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb530-3"></a><span class="kw">ggplot</span>(<span class="kw">aes</span>(<span class="dt">x =</span> times, <span class="dt">y =</span> accel), <span class="dt">data =</span> mcycle) <span class="op">+</span></span>
<span id="cb530-4"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb530-4"></a><span class="st"> </span><span class="kw">geom_point</span>() <span class="op">+</span></span>
<span id="cb530-5"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb530-5"></a><span class="st"> </span><span class="kw">geom_smooth</span>(<span class="dt">formula =</span> y <span class="op">~</span><span class="st"> </span><span class="kw">s</span>(x, <span class="dt">bs =</span> <span class="st">'ad'</span>), <span class="dt">method =</span> <span class="st">'gam'</span>)</span></code></pre></div>
<p><img src="practical-data-science_files/figure-html/ggsmooth-1.svg" width="75%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" /></p>
<p>Bootstrapped confidence intervals:</p>
<div class="sourceCode" id="cb531"><pre class="sourceCode r"><code class="sourceCode r"><span id="cb531-1"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb531-1"></a><span class="kw">ggplot</span>(mtcars, <span class="kw">aes</span>(cyl, mpg)) <span class="op">+</span></span>
<span id="cb531-2"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb531-2"></a><span class="st"> </span><span class="kw">geom_point</span>() <span class="op">+</span></span>
<span id="cb531-3"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb531-3"></a><span class="st"> </span><span class="kw">stat_summary</span>(</span>
<span id="cb531-4"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb531-4"></a> <span class="dt">fun.data =</span> <span class="st">"mean_cl_boot"</span>,</span>
<span id="cb531-5"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb531-5"></a> <span class="dt">colour =</span> <span class="st">"orange"</span>,</span>
<span id="cb531-6"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb531-6"></a> <span class="dt">alpha =</span> <span class="fl">.75</span>,</span>
<span id="cb531-7"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb531-7"></a> <span class="dt">size =</span> <span class="dv">1</span></span>
<span id="cb531-8"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb531-8"></a> )</span></code></pre></div>
<p><img src="practical-data-science_files/figure-html/ggstatsum-1.svg" width="75%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" /></p>
<p>The take-home message here is to always let ggplot do the work for you if at all possible. However, I will say that I find it easier to create the summary data I want to visualize with tidyverse tools, rather than use <span class="func">stat_summary</span>, and you may have a similar experience.</p>
</div>
<div id="scales" class="section level2">
<h2>Scales</h2>
<p>Often there are many things we want to change about the plot, for example, the size and values of axis labels, the range of sizes for points to take, the specific colors we want to use, and so forth. Be aware that there are a great many options here, and you will regularly want to use them.</p>
<p>A very common thing you’ll do is change the labels for the axes. You definitely don’t have to go and change the variable name itself to do this, just use the <span class="func">labs</span> function. There are also functions for individual parts, e.g. <span class="func">xlab</span>, <span class="func">ylab</span> and <span class="func">ggtitle</span>.</p>
<div class="sourceCode" id="cb532"><pre class="sourceCode r"><code class="sourceCode r"><span id="cb532-1"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb532-1"></a><span class="kw">ggplot</span>(<span class="kw">aes</span>(<span class="dt">x =</span> times, <span class="dt">y =</span> accel), <span class="dt">data =</span> mcycle) <span class="op">+</span></span>
<span id="cb532-2"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb532-2"></a><span class="st"> </span><span class="kw">geom_smooth</span>(<span class="dt">se =</span> <span class="ot">FALSE</span>) <span class="op">+</span></span>
<span id="cb532-3"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb532-3"></a><span class="st"> </span><span class="kw">labs</span>(</span>
<span id="cb532-4"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb532-4"></a> <span class="dt">x =</span> <span class="st">'milliseconds after impact'</span>, </span>
<span id="cb532-5"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb532-5"></a> <span class="dt">y =</span> <span class="st">'head acceleration'</span>, </span>
<span id="cb532-6"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb532-6"></a> <span class="dt">title =</span> <span class="st">'Motorcycle Accident'</span></span>
<span id="cb532-7"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb532-7"></a> )</span></code></pre></div>
<p><img src="practical-data-science_files/figure-html/scale_labs-1.svg" width="75%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" /></p>
<p>A frequent operation is changing the x and y look in the form of limits and tick marks. Like <span class="func">labs</span>, there is a general <span class="func">lims</span> function and specific functions for just the specific parts. In addition, we may want to get really detailed using <span class="func">scale_x_*</span> or <span class="func">scale_y_*</span>.</p>
<div class="sourceCode" id="cb533"><pre class="sourceCode r"><code class="sourceCode r"><span id="cb533-1"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb533-1"></a><span class="kw">ggplot</span>(mpg, <span class="kw">aes</span>(<span class="dt">x =</span> displ, <span class="dt">y =</span> hwy, <span class="dt">size =</span> cyl)) <span class="op">+</span></span>
<span id="cb533-2"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb533-2"></a><span class="st"> </span><span class="kw">geom_point</span>() <span class="op">+</span></span>
<span id="cb533-3"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb533-3"></a><span class="st"> </span><span class="kw">ylim</span>(<span class="kw">c</span>(<span class="dv">0</span>, <span class="dv">60</span>))</span></code></pre></div>
<p><img src="practical-data-science_files/figure-html/scale_lims-1.svg" width="75%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" /></p>
<div class="sourceCode" id="cb534"><pre class="sourceCode r"><code class="sourceCode r"><span id="cb534-1"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb534-1"></a><span class="kw">ggplot</span>(mpg, <span class="kw">aes</span>(<span class="dt">x =</span> displ, <span class="dt">y =</span> hwy, <span class="dt">size =</span> cyl)) <span class="op">+</span></span>
<span id="cb534-2"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb534-2"></a><span class="st"> </span><span class="kw">geom_point</span>() <span class="op">+</span></span>
<span id="cb534-3"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb534-3"></a><span class="st"> </span><span class="kw">scale_y_continuous</span>(</span>
<span id="cb534-4"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb534-4"></a> <span class="dt">limits =</span> <span class="kw">c</span>(<span class="dv">0</span>, <span class="dv">60</span>),</span>
<span id="cb534-5"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb534-5"></a> <span class="dt">breaks =</span> <span class="kw">seq</span>(<span class="dv">0</span>, <span class="dv">60</span>, <span class="dt">by =</span> <span class="dv">12</span>),</span>
<span id="cb534-6"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb534-6"></a> <span class="dt">minor_breaks =</span> <span class="kw">seq</span>(<span class="dv">6</span>, <span class="dv">60</span>, <span class="dt">by =</span> <span class="dv">6</span>)</span>
<span id="cb534-7"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb534-7"></a> )</span></code></pre></div>
<p><img src="practical-data-science_files/figure-html/scale_lims-2.svg" width="75%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" /></p>
<p>Another common option is to change the size of points in some way. While we assign the aesthetic as before, it comes with defaults that might not work for a given situation. Play around with the range values.</p>
<div class="sourceCode" id="cb535"><pre class="sourceCode r"><code class="sourceCode r"><span id="cb535-1"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb535-1"></a><span class="kw">ggplot</span>(mpg, <span class="kw">aes</span>(<span class="dt">x =</span> displ, <span class="dt">y =</span> hwy, <span class="dt">size =</span> cyl)) <span class="op">+</span></span>
<span id="cb535-2"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb535-2"></a><span class="st"> </span><span class="kw">geom_point</span>() <span class="op">+</span></span>
<span id="cb535-3"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb535-3"></a><span class="st"> </span><span class="kw">scale_size</span>(<span class="dt">range =</span> <span class="kw">c</span>(<span class="dv">1</span>, <span class="dv">3</span>))</span></code></pre></div>
<p><img src="practical-data-science_files/figure-html/scale_size2-1.svg" width="75%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" /></p>
<p>We will talk about color issues later, but for now, you may want to apply something besides the default options. The following shows a built-in color scale for a color aesthetic that is treated as continuous, and one that is discrete and which we want to supply our own colors (these actually come from plotly’s default color scheme).</p>
<div class="sourceCode" id="cb536"><pre class="sourceCode r"><code class="sourceCode r"><span id="cb536-1"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb536-1"></a><span class="kw">ggplot</span>(mpg, <span class="kw">aes</span>(<span class="dt">x =</span> displ, <span class="dt">y =</span> hwy, <span class="dt">color =</span> cyl)) <span class="op">+</span></span>
<span id="cb536-2"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb536-2"></a><span class="st"> </span><span class="kw">geom_point</span>() <span class="op">+</span></span>
<span id="cb536-3"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb536-3"></a><span class="st"> </span><span class="kw">scale_color_gradient2</span>()</span></code></pre></div>
<p><img src="practical-data-science_files/figure-html/scale_color-1.svg" width="75%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" /></p>
<div class="sourceCode" id="cb537"><pre class="sourceCode r"><code class="sourceCode r"><span id="cb537-1"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb537-1"></a><span class="kw">ggplot</span>(mpg, <span class="kw">aes</span>(<span class="dt">x =</span> displ, <span class="dt">y =</span> hwy, <span class="dt">color =</span> <span class="kw">factor</span>(cyl))) <span class="op">+</span></span>
<span id="cb537-2"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb537-2"></a><span class="st"> </span><span class="kw">geom_point</span>() <span class="op">+</span></span>
<span id="cb537-3"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb537-3"></a><span class="st"> </span><span class="kw">scale_color_manual</span>(<span class="dt">values =</span> <span class="kw">c</span>(<span class="st">"#1f77b4"</span>, <span class="st">"#ff7f0e"</span>, <span class="st">"#2ca02c"</span>, <span class="st">"#d62728"</span>))</span></code></pre></div>
<p><img src="practical-data-science_files/figure-html/scale_color-2.svg" width="75%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" /></p>
<p>We can even change the scale of the data itself.</p>
<div class="sourceCode" id="cb538"><pre class="sourceCode r"><code class="sourceCode r"><span id="cb538-1"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb538-1"></a><span class="kw">ggplot</span>(mpg, <span class="kw">aes</span>(<span class="dt">x =</span> displ, <span class="dt">y =</span> hwy)) <span class="op">+</span></span>
<span id="cb538-2"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb538-2"></a><span class="st"> </span><span class="kw">geom_point</span>() <span class="op">+</span></span>
<span id="cb538-3"><a href="ggplot2.html#cb538-3"></a><span class="st"> </span><span class="kw">scale_x_log10</span>()</span></code></pre></div>