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<h1 id="six-sense-spheres"><a class="header" href="#six-sense-spheres">Six Sense Spheres</a></h1>
<p><em>Pathways for Contacting and Experiencing the World</em></p>
<div class="opening-illustration">
<p><a href="https://buddhadhamma.github.io/includes/images/illustrations/ch-2-temple-trade.pdf"><img src="./includes/images/illustrations/ch-2-temple-trade.jpg" alt="image" /></a></p>
<p class="caption">
<a href="https://buddhadhamma.github.io/includes/images/illustrations/ch-2-temple-trade.pdf" target="_blank">
(Open large size)
</a>
</p>
</div>
<h2 id="introduction"><a class="header" href="#introduction">Introduction</a></h2>
<p>Although human beings are made up of the five aggregates, which can be
further subdivided into numerous subsidiary factors, generally speaking,
in everyday life, people do not directly engage with these aggregates.
Many of these component factors making up human life exist and function
without people’s knowledge, and even if they are aware of them, people
often do not give them much thought. In respect to the body, for
example, many physical organs function without the knowledge of the
person involved, who often does not care to know. People may only take
an interest in these functions when there arises some abnormality or
impairment. This is similarly the case in regard to mental factors.</p>
<p>People generally leave the study and analysis of the body as the
responsibility of medical scholars and biologists, and they leave the
study of the mind up to Abhidhamma scholars and psychologists. For the
majority of people, the importance or meaning of life centres around
their everyday engagement and interaction with the world. The importance
of life for most people lies in their relationship to the world.</p>
<p>This engagement or relationship can be divided into two parts or
systems, both of which rely on specific ’doorways’ (<em>dvāra</em>; ’channel’)
for making contact with the world:</p>
<ol>
<li>
<p>Cognition and experience of the world by way of the six sense doors
(<em>phassa-dvāra</em>; ’doorways of sense contact’; ’sense bases’): the
eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind. These sense doors cognize
various properties and attributes of the world, namely, the six
sense objects (<em>ārammaṇa</em>): forms, sounds, smells, tastes, tangible
objects, and mental objects.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Behaviour and response to the world relying on the three channels of
action (<em>kamma-dvāra</em>): the body (<em>kāya-dvāra</em>), speech
(<em>vacī-dvāra</em>), and mind (<em>mano-dvāra</em>), resulting in physical
actions (<em>kāya-kamma</em>), verbal actions (<em>vacī-kamma</em>), and mental
actions (<em>mano-kamma</em>).</p>
</li>
</ol>
<p>Note that in the context of active engagement in everyday life, the term
<em>dvāra</em> (’sense doors’) in the first system is most often referred to in
the scriptures by the term <em>āyatana</em>, which means ’sphere of cognition’
or ’path of cognition’. For this reason, in this analysis here, the term
<em>āyatana</em> is used instead of <em>dvāra</em>.</p>
<p>In regard to the second system, the entire engagement here pertains to
the fourth aggregate – the aggregate of volitional formations
(<em>saṅkhāra</em>) – which was discussed in the previous chapter. The myriad
volitional formations, which can be classified as wholesome,
unwholesome, and neutral, manifest and function when they are selected,
induced, and authorized by intention (<em>cetanā</em>) – their leader and
representative – to behave or act by way of body, speech and mind,
resulting in physical deeds, speech, and thoughts. {29}</p>
<p>In this context, volitional formations are reclassified in three ways:
(1) according to the chief or representative factor (i.e. of intention);
(2) according to the pathway by which they are expressed; and (3)
according to the specific action performed, as shown on
Figure <a href="#fig-intention-and-action">Intention and Action</a>.</p>
<div class="figure">
<p><span class="caption">Intention and Action</span><a id="fig-intention-and-action"></a>
<img src="./includes/images/diagrams/intention-and-action.jpg" alt="image" /></p>
</div>
<p>In the previous chapter on the five aggregates, volitional formations
(<em>saṅkhāra</em>) as the factors determining the quality and attributes of
the mind have already been discussed. In chapters 4 and 5 of
<em>Buddhadhamma</em>, covering the process of human life and human activities,
a detailed explanation of volitional formations will be presented in
regard to their role in shaping behaviour and responding to the external
world. In this present chapter, the focus is thus restricted to the
first system above, namely, the nature and proper functioning of the six
sense doors.</p>
<h2 id="nature-of-the-six-senses"><a class="header" href="#nature-of-the-six-senses">Nature of the Six Senses</a></h2>
<p>The term <em>āyatana</em> literally means ’link’ or ’sphere’. In this context
it refers to ’cognitive link’, ’sphere of cognition’, ’source of
awareness’, or ’doorway of perception’. There are six such doorways: the
eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn1-1"><a href="#fn-fn1">1</a></sup></p>
<p>One may then ask, ’To what are these senses linked?’ The answer is that
they are linked to the world, to the external environment. Yet the world
only reveals limited parts or aspects of itself to human beings,
depending on people’s faculties or instruments of cognition, that is,
depending on the six senses mentioned above. For this reason, each one
of the six senses is paired with a specific ’object of awareness’ in the
external world. {30}</p>
<p>These objects of awareness are also referred to by the term <em>āyatana</em>,
because they too act as a cognitive link or as a source of awareness.
Yet, as opposed to the six internal senses (internal <em>āyatana</em>) just
mentioned, these objects exist in the external world (external
<em>āyatana</em>).</p>
<p>Generally speaking, these six external sense objects – visual forms,
sounds, smells, tastes, tangible objects, and mental objects – are
referred to by the term <em>ārammaṇa</em>, which literally means ’something
that detains the mind’ or ’something that holds attention’. Simply
speaking, they are ’objects of attention’.</p>
<p>When an internal sense base (<em>āyatana</em>; ’sphere of cognition’) comes
into contact with an (external) object of attention (<em>ārammaṇa</em>), an
awareness specific to that individual sense sphere arises.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn2-1"><a href="#fn-fn2">2</a></sup> When the
eye comes into contact with forms, the awareness of ’seeing’ arises;
when the ear contacts sounds, the awareness of ’hearing’, etc. This
awareness is called ’consciousness’ (<em>viññāṇa</em>): the awareness of sense
objects.</p>
<p>There are thus six kinds of consciousness, corresponding to the six
sense faculties and the six sense objects: eye-consciousness (i.e.
seeing); ear-consciousness (i.e. hearing); nose-consciousness (i.e.
smelling); tongue-consciousness (i.e. tasting); body-consciousness (i.e.
touching); and mind-consciousness (i.e. awareness of mental objects):</p>
<ol>
<li>
<p>Eye (<em>cakkhu</em>) is the sphere for cognizing form (<em>rūpa</em>), giving
rise to seeing (<em>cakkhu-viññāṇa</em>).</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Ear (<em>sota</em>) is the sphere for cognizing sound (<em>sadda</em>), giving
rise to hearing (<em>sota-viññāṇa</em>).</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Nose (<em>ghāna</em>) is the sphere for cognizing odours (<em>gandha</em>), giving
rise to smelling (<em>ghāna-viññāṇa</em>).</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Tongue (<em>jivhā</em>) is the sphere for cognizing tastes (<em>rasa</em>), giving
rise to tasting (<em>jivhā-viññāṇa</em>).</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Body (<em>kāya</em>) is the sphere for cognizing tangibles (<em>phoṭṭhabba</em>),
giving rise to tactile awareness (<em>kāya-viññāṇa</em>).</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Mind (<em>mano</em>) is the sphere for cognizing mental objects
(<em>dhamma</em>),<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn3-1"><a href="#fn-fn3">3</a></sup> giving rise to awareness of mental objects
(<em>mano-viññāṇa</em>).</p>
</li>
</ol>
<p>This can be expanded as:</p>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<ul>
<li>
<p>6 sense bases (internal <em>āyatana</em>): eye, ear, nose, tongue, body,
mind.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>6 sense objects (external <em>āyatana</em>): form (visible objects),
sound (audible objects), smell (odorous objects), taste (sapid
objects), touch (tangible objects), mind-objects (cognizable
objects).</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>6 kinds of consciousness: eye-, ear-, nose-, tongue-, body- and
mind-consciousness.</p>
</li>
</ul>
<p><em>D. III. 243-4.</em></p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>Although the arising of consciousness is dependent on the contact
between a sense base and its respective sense object,<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn4-1"><a href="#fn-fn4">4</a></sup> the fact that
a sense object becomes manifest to a sense base does not invariably
result in consciousness. Other accompanying factors, such as
receptivity, determination, and interest must also be present.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn5-1"><a href="#fn-fn5">5</a></sup> For
example, while a person is asleep, agitated, absentminded, focused on an
activity, or highly concentrated, various visual forms and sounds within
range of potential awareness are neither seen nor heard. {31} Similarly,
when one is focused on writing a letter or a book, one may not be aware
of the contact between one’s body and the chair or between one’s fingers
and the pen. In such cases, when sense bases and sense objects are in
contact, but without the arising of consciousness, ’cognition’ is not
yet said to have occurred.</p>
<p>Cognition arises when all three factors are present: a sense base
(<em>āyatana</em>), a sense object (<em>ārammaṇa</em>), and consciousness (<em>viññāṇa</em>).
The technical term in Pali for the union of these three factors is
<em>phassa</em> (alternatively, <em>samphassa</em>). Although this term literally
means ’contact’, in Buddhism it refers specifically to the coming
together or convergence of these three factors. In this context <em>phassa</em>
may be translated as ’cognition’. This contact or cognition is divided
into six kinds, according to the specific sense sphere involved, i.e.:
eye-contact (<em>cakkhu-samphassa</em>), ear-contact (<em>sota-samphassa</em>),
nose-contact (<em>ghāna-samphassa</em>), tongue-contact (<em>jivhā-samphassa</em>),
body-contact (<em>kāya-samphassa</em>), and mind-contact (<em>mano-samphassa</em>).</p>
<p>This contact is a vital stage in the wider cognitive process. Once
contact with an object has occurred, other mental and physical dynamics
follow in its wake. To begin with, there is a feeling (<em>vedanā</em>) in
response to that object, followed by recognition, associated thinking,
and various actions of body, speech, and mind.</p>
<p>The feelings or sensations (<em>vedanā</em>) arising immediately after contact
with an object are of special interest in this analysis of people’s
interaction with the world. The term <em>vedanā</em> refers to sense
experience, to experiencing the ’flavour’ of sense impressions. These
sensations are either pleasurable, painful, or neutral.</p>
<p>If classified according to the pathways of cognition, there are six
kinds of feeling, corresponding to the six sense bases: feelings arising
from eye-contact, feelings arising from ear-contact, etc.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn6-1"><a href="#fn-fn6">6</a></sup> If
classified according to the quality of feeling, however, there are three
kinds:</p>
<ol>
<li>
<p><em>Sukha</em>: pleasurable, easeful, comfortable, agreeable.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Dukkha</em>: painful, uncomfortable.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Adukkhamasukha</em> (also referred to as <em>upekkha</em>):<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn7-1"><a href="#fn-fn7">7</a></sup> neutral;
neither pleasant nor painful.</p>
</li>
</ol>
<p>This latter division is sometimes expanded into five kinds of feeling:</p>
<ol>
<li>
<p><em>Sukha</em>: physical pleasure.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Dukkha</em>: physical pain.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Somanassa</em>: mental pleasure; joy.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Domanassa</em>: mental pain; sorrow.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Upekkhā</em>: neutral feeling; neither pleasure nor pain. {32}</p>
</li>
</ol>
<p>The cognitive process up to this point can be outlined as follows:</p>
<div class="figure">
<p><span class="caption">The Cognitive Process (Simple Form)</span><a id="fig-cognitive-process-simple"></a>
<img src="./includes/images/diagrams/cognitive-process-simple.jpg" alt="image" /></p>
</div>
<p>The objects of awareness (<em>ārammaṇa</em>) are equivalent to those aspects of
the world apparent to human beings by way of the sense bases
(<em>āyatana</em>). The awareness of these objects is necessary for people to
engage with the world and to survive.</p>
<p>Feeling (<em>vedanā</em>) is an essential factor in this process, indicating to
people both what is dangerous and should be avoided, and what is
supportive and should be sought out. Feeling thus promotes a
comprehensive understanding of things.</p>
<p>For unawakened people, however, the role of feeling does not end here.
Feeling is not merely one factor in the cognitive process which enhances
knowledge and enables them to live a virtuous life. For them, feeling
also implies that the world provides them with some form of compensation
or reward for engaging with it. This reward is the pleasure and delight
(referred to as <em>sukha-vedanā</em>) derived from sense objects.</p>
<p>If people seize onto feeling in this manner, they depart from the
natural cognitive process and provide another dynamic the opportunity to
take over. Feeling becomes a principal agent giving rise to subsequent
factors within this new dynamic. The natural cognitive process functions
in conjunction with this new dynamic, but it is distorted by its force
and deviates from the truth.</p>
<p>This new dynamic unfolds very easily. Basically, if contact with a sense
object provides pleasure (<em>sukha-vedanā</em>), a desire (<em>taṇhā</em>) for that
object arises. This desire leads to attachment and latent clinging
(<em>upādāna</em>). One is unable to lay down the object, even though in truth
it is impossible to appropriate it, since it has already passed one by
and vanished. At this stage, one is mentally preoccupied, creating
various ideas and conceptions on how one may possess the pleasurable
object, and planning how to obtain it. Finally, one performs various
physical and verbal actions in order to reach one’s desired goal and to
access the pleasurable feelings.</p>
<p>Conversely, if contact with a sense object leads to painful or
uncomfortable sensations (<em>dukkha-vedanā</em>), one is discontent and
annoyed. One desires to escape from or to eliminate the object (=
<em>taṇhā</em>). One is preoccupied and fixated on that object (= <em>upādāna</em>) in
a negative sense, predisposed towards aversion, fear, and avoidance. One
reacts further by yearning for and obsessing over pleasurable feelings,
pursuing those things one believes will provide pleasure.</p>
<p>This new dynamic produces a complex and desperate cycle of joy and
sorrow, which is concocted by human beings themselves and which spins
around repeatedly, beginning with this link of feeling (<em>vedanā</em>). This
is one interpretation of the ’cycle of rebirth’ (<em>saṁsāra-vaṭṭa</em>).
People get caught in this whirlpool, and are unable to reach superior
states of mind, which are available and attainable as a human being.</p>
<p>The link in the cognitive process following on from contact (<em>phassa</em>)
is thus highly significant. One may say that this is the critical or
turning point in the process. Feeling (<em>vedanā</em>) plays a crucial role at
this stage. The subsequent factors in the cognitive process depend on
the kind of role that feeling plays at this point. Here, there are a
couple of matters to consider: {33}</p>
<p>First, the link following on from contact is a critical juncture, which
acts as the fork in the road between a pure cognitive process and the
so-called ’round of rebirth’ (<em>saṁsāra-vaṭṭa</em>).</p>
<p>Within a pure cognitive process, feeling is simply a minor factor,
helping to bring about correct and accurate knowledge.</p>
<p>Within the ’round of rebirth’, however, feeling is a predominant factor,
dictating the entire process. It is valid to say that feeling (<em>vedanā</em>)
shapes all of unawakened peoples’s thoughts and actions – people’s
lives are determined by feeling. Within this process, people do not
experience sense impressions merely to learn about the world and to
engage with it in a healthy way, but they also begin to view the world
as something to be consumed.</p>
<p>Technically speaking, within a pure cognitive process, the link of
feeling (<em>vedanā</em>) is removed or considered inconsequential. Here,
cognition is completed with contact (<em>phassa</em>). The following stage is
referred to as the process of knowing and seeing (<em>ñāṇa-dassana</em>), or the
process of ’turning away’ (<em>vivaṭṭa</em>), which is the opposite to the
’round of rebirth’ (<em>saṁsāra-vaṭṭa</em>).<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn8-1"><a href="#fn-fn8">8</a></sup></p>
<p>Second, the link following on from contact is a critical juncture in
terms of ethical conduct. It is the decisive turning point between good
and evil, between wholesome and unwholesome, and between liberation and
spinning around in the cycle of rebirth.</p>
<p>At this point we should return to the subject of the sense bases
(<em>āyatana</em>), because all of the cognitive factors so far discussed rely
on and begin with the sense bases. These sense bases thus also play a
vital role in the cognitive process. For example, they are the source of
feeling (<em>vedanā</em>) or the channels enabling the arising of feeling.
Human beings aim for and desire feeling, and the sense bases make it
possible to experience feeling.</p>
<p>In sum, the sense bases serve human beings in two ways:</p>
<ol>
<li>
<p>They are the pathways for experiencing the world; they are the locus
where aspects of the world are submitted to human beings. They are
the instruments for communication, providing people with raw data
for understanding. They are thus essential for helping people engage
successfully with the world, to live well, and to survive.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>They are the channels for ’consuming’ the world; they are the
doorways that people open in order to experience the sweetness and
pleasures of the world and to seek amusement, by seeing sights,
hearing sounds, smelling fragrances, tasting flavours, touching
tangibles, and fantasizing over agreeable thoughts.</p>
</li>
</ol>
<p>These two functions are connected. The first is the principal or basic
function, which is necessary. The second function is secondary; one can
say that it is ’extra’ or ’excessive’. {34}</p>
<p>In both cases, the sense bases operate in the same way. The difference
lies in the factor of intention, whether people aim for knowledge or
whether they aim for sensation (<em>vedanā</em>).</p>
<p>For unawakened beings, the importance of the sense bases tends to be
centred on the second function, of consuming sense impressions. The
first function then becomes simply an accessory or accomplice in
fulfilling the second. In other words, cognition acts as a servant for
consuming the world or for propelling the cycle of rebirth. Ordinarily,
people use their senses to gather only that specific knowledge that
helps them to obtain and experience delicious and delightful sense
objects. They are generally not interested in securing knowledge beyond
this function.</p>
<p>Moreover, the physical, verbal, and mental behaviour of unawakened
beings is also performed out of service to the cycle of rebirth. That
is, people tend to act, speak, and think in order to seek and obtain
pleasurable sense impressions.</p>
<p>The more dimwitted people are, the greater is their entanglement with
this second function, to the point that people’s entire lives revolve
around the six sense bases.</p>
<p>Although the six sense bases are only one part of the five aggregates
and do not comprise the entirety of human life (as the five aggregates
do),<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn9-1"><a href="#fn-fn9">9</a></sup> they play a vital role for people and are highly influential in
directing people’s lives. One can say that life as ordinary people know
it is defined by their engagement with the world by way of the six
senses. The six senses give meaning to people’s lives. If the six senses
do not function properly, life becomes meaningless – the world ends.</p>
<p>The following passage from the Pali Canon provides a concise yet
complete description of this process, and helps to integrate the
explanations of the five aggregates (from the previous chapter) with the
subject here of the six senses:</p>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>Dependent on the eye and forms, eye-consciousness arises. The meeting
of the three is contact. With contact as condition there is feeling.
What one feels, that one perceives. What one perceives, that one
thinks about. What one thinks about, that one mentally proliferates
(<em>papañca</em>) over. With what one has mentally proliferated over as the
source, diverse and complex perceptions (<em>papañca-saññā-saṅkhā</em>) beset
a person with respect to past, future, and present forms cognizable
through the eye.</p>
<p>(The same is true for the remaining five pairs of sense bases/sense
objects.) {35}</p>
<p><em>M. I. 111-12.</em></p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>This process can be illustrated in this way:</p>
<div class="figure">
<p><span class="caption">The Cognitive Process</span><a id="fig-cognitive-process"></a>
<img src="./includes/images/diagrams/cognitive-process.jpg" alt="image" /></p>
</div>
<p>With the arising of diverse and complex perceptions (<em>papañca-saññā</em>),
there is an increase in elaborate and embellished thinking, giving rise
to such defilements as lust, aversion, possessiveness, and
jealously.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn10-1"><a href="#fn-fn10">10</a></sup></p>
<h3 id="nota-bene"><a class="header" href="#nota-bene">Nota Bene</a></h3>
<ol>
<li>
<p>The term <em>papañca</em> refers to an engagement and entanglement with
specific sense objects; it also refers to proliferative thinking
driven by the force of craving (<em>taṇhā</em>), conceit (<em>māna</em>), and
wrong view (<em>diṭṭhi</em>), or thinking that compensates these three
mental impurities. Here, a person conceives of things in terms of
’me’ and ’mine’, building a sense of self-identity or conceiving of
things in line with personal opinions. These thoughts appear in
myriad and elaborate ways, leading to various complex perceptions
(<em>papañca-saññā</em>) that are associated with these mental
proliferations.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>There are two stages of perception (<em>saññā</em>): the first stage is
initial perception, which perceives those objects that arise
naturally on their own. The second stage – <em>papañca-saññā</em> – is
perception based on mental formations (<em>saṅkhāra</em>), which fabricate
myriad and elaborate images or concepts in relation to sense
objects, as mentioned above.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>The entire cognitive process can be divided into two parts:</p>
<ol>
<li>
<p>The first part, from the internal sense bases to feeling,
comprises a pure cognitive process; all of the inherent factors
arise according to natural causes and conditions. At this stage
there is no ’being’, ’person’, or ’self’ involved.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>The latter part, from feeling (<em>vedanā</em>) onwards, comprises the
process of consuming the world or the round of rebirth
(<em>saṁsāra-vaṭṭa</em>). (In fact, feeling – <em>vedanā</em> – can also
constitute the initial stage of the process of turning away
(<em>vivaṭṭa</em>), but here the focus is on the round of rebirth.) In
this latter process, there are not only natural causes and
conditions at work, but there now arises a ’person’ or ’being’.
A dualistic relationship is established between a ’consumer’ and
the ’consumed’, between a ’thinker’ and ’conceptualized ideas’.</p>
</li>
</ol>
</li>
<li>
<p>The process of consuming the world illustrated above is only one of
several ways to depict this process. It has been selected here
because it is concise and it corresponds to the subjects presently
being explained, i.e. the five aggregates and the six sense bases.
Another description of the round of rebirth is the detailed teaching
of Dependent Origination, which is a comprehensive model.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Strictly speaking, the factors of consciousness (<em>viññāṇa</em>), contact
(<em>phassa</em>), feeling (<em>vedanā</em>), and perception (<em>saññā</em>) are
classified as ’conascent factors’ (<em>sahajāta-dhammā</em>): they arise
simultaneously. The linear presentation above is provided for the
sake of simplicity. {36}</p>
</li>
</ol>
<p>The cognitive process can be divided into two parts, and the latter part
itself can be further divided into either the ’round of rebirth’
(<em>saṁsāra-vaṭṭa</em>) or the ’process of turning away’ (<em>vivaṭṭa</em>), as
illustrated on
Figure <a href="#fig-revolving-or-turning-away">Rounds of Rebirth or Turning Away</a>.</p>
<div class="figure">
<p><span class="caption">Rounds of Rebirth or Turning Away</span><a id="fig-revolving-or-turning-away"></a>
<img src="./includes/images/diagrams/revolving-or-turning-away.jpg" alt="image" /></p>
</div>
<p>Another term used to refer to the six internal sense bases (<em>āyatana</em>)
or sense doors (<em>dvāra</em>) is <em>indriya</em>, which translates as ’faculty’ or
’governing faculty’. This term refers to the predominant or principal
agent in a specific action. The eye, for example, is the principal agent
in cognizing forms, and the ear is the principal agent in cognizing
sounds. The six faculties are: the eye-faculty (<em>cakkhundriya</em>), the
ear-faculty (<em>sotindriya</em>), the nose-faculty (<em>ghānindriya</em>), the
tongue-faculty (<em>jivhindriya</em>), the body-faculty (<em>kāyindriya</em>), and the
mind-faculty (<em>manindriya</em>).</p>
<p>The term <em>indriya</em> is generally used when referring to the active
engagement of the sense bases, to their operation in everyday life, and
in the context of virtuous conduct, for example: ’restraint of the
eye-faculty’. The term <em>āyatana</em>, on the other hand, is generally used
when referring to specific factors within a causal process (e.g.:
’dependent on the eye and visual forms, eye-consciousness arises’), and
also when referring to characteristics of the senses (e.g.: ’the eye is
impermanent’).</p>
<p>Another term frequently used for the sense bases when explaining
specific factors within a causal process is <em>phassāyatana</em>, which
translates as the ’source of contact’ or the ’origin of contact’.</p>
<p>Alternative terms referring to the external <em>āyatana</em> – the sense
objects (<em>ārammaṇa</em>) – include <em>gocara</em> (’resort’, ’place for gaining
sustenance’) and <em>visaya</em> (’bond’, ’attachment’, ’sphere of
engagement’).</p>
<p>Another very important term, used only in reference to the first five
sense objects, which are highly influential in the process of consuming
the world or in the round of rebirth, is <em>kāma-guṇa</em>, translated as:
’cords of sensual pleasure’, ’strands of sensual pleasure’, ’alluring
and enticing features’, ’delicious (or ’positive’) aspects of
sensuality’. This term refers specifically to those forms, sounds,
smells, tastes, and tangible objects that are desirable, attractive, and
pleasurable. {37}</p>
<h2 id="buddhist-epistemology"><a class="header" href="#buddhist-epistemology">Buddhist Epistemology</a></h2>
<p>In the discussion of the cognitive process it is apt to include here a
short description of different kinds of knowledge.</p>
<p>According to Buddha-Dhamma, there are many different ways to classify
knowledge:</p>
<h3 id="types-of-knowledge"><a class="header" href="#types-of-knowledge">Types of Knowledge</a></h3>
<p>This classification corresponds to the teaching on the five aggregates
(<em>khandha</em>). Knowledge is a form of mentality (<em>nāma-dhamma</em>), and
various aspects of knowledge are found in three of the ’aggregates of
mentality’ (<em>nāma-khandha</em>), namely the perception aggregate
(<em>saññā-khandha</em>), the volitional formations aggregate
(<em>saṅkhāra-khandha</em>), and the consciousness aggregate
(<em>viññāṇa-khandha</em>). There are three distinct kinds of knowledge
classified according to the aggregates: perception (<em>saññā</em>),
consciousness (<em>viññāṇa</em>), and wisdom (<em>paññā</em>).</p>
<p><strong>1. Perception</strong> (<em>saññā</em>): This refers to all forms of knowledge
within the domain of the perception aggregate, that is, perception along
with knowledge stemming from perception. This includes the gathered and
stored perceptions that become the raw material for thought and enable
recognition, remembering, understanding, and contemplation.</p>
<p>According to the objects noted or perceived, perception is divided into
six kinds: perception of form (<em>rūpa-saññā</em>), perception of sound
(<em>sadda-saññā</em>), perception of smell (<em>gandha-saññā</em>), perception of
taste (<em>rasa-saññā</em>), perception of tangible objects
(<em>phoṭṭhabba-saññā</em>), and perception of mind objects (<em>dhamma-saññā</em>;
perception of thoughts).<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn11-1"><a href="#fn-fn11">11</a></sup></p>
<p>According to how perceptions are formed, they can be roughly divided
into two stages:</p>
<ol>
<li>
<p>Basic or initial perception: direct perception of the features and
characteristics of things as they are, for example one perceives
green, white, black, red, hard, soft, sour, sweet, round, flat,
long, and short.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn12-1"><a href="#fn-fn12">12</a></sup> This also includes perceptions linked to
conventional designations (<em>paññatti</em>), for example: ’cat’, ’desk’,
and ’chair’.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Overlapping or supplementary perception: perception resulting from
mental conceptualization,<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn13-1"><a href="#fn-fn13">13</a></sup> or perception in accord with various
levels of knowledge and understanding, for example one perceives
something as beautiful, revolting, despicable, impermanent, or
nonself. This supplementary or secondary perception may be further
subdivided into two kinds:</p>
<ol>
<li>
<p>Perception resulting from unwholesome mental proliferation
(<em>papañca-saññā</em>); muddled or convoluted perception stemming
from the elaborate embellishment by craving (<em>taṇhā</em>), conceit
(<em>māna</em>), and wrong view (<em>diṭṭhi</em>). The commentaries refer to
it as ’defiled perception’ (<em>kilesa-saññā</em>): perception tinged
with mental defilement.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn14-1"><a href="#fn-fn14">14</a></sup> {38} It is perverted by defilement
and thus deviates from the path of knowledge. Rather than
fostering understanding, it breeds greed, hatred, and delusion,
and it distorts or obstructs understanding. Examples of this
kind of perception include: perceiving those features one
considers despicable; perceiving those features that answer to
covetousness; perceiving those attributes that feed a sense of
self-importance; perceiving attributes in others whom one
considers inferior; and perceptions of ultimate ownership and
control.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Perception resulting from wholesome thinking; perception
springing from correct understanding. This perception is
referred to as wholesome perception (<em>kusala-saññā</em>), perception
conducive to knowledge (<em>vijjābhāgiya-saññā</em>), or by other
similar terms. It fosters the development of wisdom and the
growth of wholesome qualities. Examples of this kind of
perception include: perceiving those attributes that foster
friendship; and perceiving those attributes that reveal the
state of causality, the state of impermanence, the state of
nonself, etc.</p>
</li>
</ol>
</li>
</ol>
<p>Arahants<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn15-1"><a href="#fn-fn15">15</a></sup> have perception, but it is perception free from mental
taints (<em>āsava</em>), free from defilement (<em>kilesa</em>).<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn16-1"><a href="#fn-fn16">16</a></sup> Arahants are
able to identify proliferative perception (<em>papañca-saññā</em>) as
experienced by unawakened people, or as they themselves used to
experience it before their full awakening, but they do so simply for the
sake of knowledge or in order to benefit others, for example when
helping others to solve their problems. With these perceptions by
arahants, there is no sense of being personally disturbed or affected.
General Dhamma practitioners can model their own behaviour on this
conduct by the arahants.</p>
<p><strong>2. Consciousness</strong> (<em>viññāṇa</em>): All knowledge that is part of the
consciousness-aggregate (<em>viññāṇa-khandha</em>); the principal form of all
knowledge and awareness, which is the constant function of the mind.
Consciousness is aware of all mental activity, as explained in Chapter
1.</p>
<p><strong>3. Wisdom</strong> (<em>paññā</em>): This is the principal form of knowledge
contained within the volitional formation aggregate
(<em>saṅkhāra-khandha</em>). This factor too was already explained at length in
chapter 1.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn17-1"><a href="#fn-fn17">17</a></sup> Besides this chief form of knowledge, there are many
other factors within the group of volitional formations that are related
to the principle of knowledge and understanding. These factors are
related to wisdom, either by supporting it, by acting as intermediary
factors in wisdom development, or by acting as criteria for revealing
the presence, absence, diminishment, or increase of wisdom. Most
notably, these factors are:<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn18-1"><a href="#fn-fn18">18</a></sup></p>
<ul>
<li>
<p><strong>Faith</strong> (<em>saddhā</em>): belief; conviction; confidence; inspiration.
Although faith is not itself a form of knowledge, it can act as a
gateway to knowledge. Faith implies accepting the knowledge of
others, trusting in others’ wisdom, and being willing to rely on
other people’s knowledge, or other sources of knowledge, as a
personal guide. If the person endowed with faith is able to reflect
and to apply an initial reserve of wisdom, faith can lead to an
understanding of the truth. This is particularly valid when the
other person’s knowledge, or the other source of knowledge, is
accurate and genuine, and when there is a virtuous friend
(<em>kalyāṇamitta</em>) to advise in how to properly apply wisdom. On the
contrary, however, if a person is gullible – that is, he is unable
to apply wise reflection – and the people (along with other sources
of information) he associates with are misguided, and he is without
virtuous friends or has evil-minded friends, the results may be the
opposite. He may be led to greater misunderstanding and
delusion.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn19-1"><a href="#fn-fn19">19</a></sup> {39}</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>View</strong> (<em>diṭṭhi</em>): knowledge according to one’s own notions and
viewpoints. <em>Diṭṭhi</em> is an important stage in the development of
wisdom. It follows on from a dependence by faith on other people’s
knowledge, at which stage one arrives at one’s own personal
understanding or reasoned discernment. View (<em>diṭṭhi</em>) and faith
(<em>saddhā</em>) are often closely related, or they are two aspects of a
single matter: the entrusting oneself to others’ knowledge and the
willingness to follow them (with devotion) is faith; the adoption of
those aspects of knowledge or of others’ advice, and identifying
them as one’s own is ’view’. The important attribute of view is
adhering to something as one’s own.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn20-1"><a href="#fn-fn20">20</a></sup></p>
<p>The knowledge classified as ’view’ (<em>diṭṭhi</em>) ranges from the
irrational, to the moderately rational, to the highly rational. When
view is developed to the point of correct knowledge and
understanding – that which corresponds with reality – it is called
’right view’ (<em>sammā-diṭṭhi</em>) and is designated as ’wisdom’
(<em>paññā</em>).<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn21-1"><a href="#fn-fn21">21</a></sup> When one develops wisdom to the point of clearly
discerning the nature of things, one no longer needs to seize this
understanding as one’s own. This is because the truth exists in a
neutral, objective way; it does not depend on anyone’s assertions or
affirmations. It lies beyond the stage of ’view’.</p>
<p>Because view tends to be linked with personal attachments, it often
produces harmful effects. If one’s attachment is strong and
unyielding, despite one’s views being very close to the truth, they
will end up being an impediment, preventing one from realizing the
truth.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Delusion</strong> (<em>moha</em>; ignorance): <em>moha</em> is a synonym for <em>avijjā</em>;
both of these terms refer to an ignorance of the truth and a lack of
understanding in regard to reality. This ignorance is the opposite
of wisdom (<em>paññā</em>), particularly the specific form of wisdom called
’true knowledge’ (<em>vijjā</em>). One can say that delusion is the basic
state of existence for human beings, who are encouraged to dispel it
by way of true understanding (<em>vijjā</em>), or by way of wisdom
development.</p>
<p>Although one may study an extensive amount of technical knowledge
(’arts and sciences’), and apply this knowledge in various
enterprises, if it does not help one to understand things as they
truly are – does not lead one to a true discernment of the
conditioned world – it remains on the level of formal learning
(<em>suta</em>): ’that which has been transmitted’; ’that which one has
heard’. It is not yet true wisdom. It is unable to dispel ignorance
or delusion, and it is unable to solve the basic predicament of
life. It may solve some problems, but occasionally it breeds new
ones. Take the example of someone who desires light and goes off in
search of large quantities of kindling and fuel. No matter what this
person does with these items, say by arranging them in various
decorative patterns, as long as he has not ignited a flame, no light
will shine forth.</p>
</li>
</ul>
<p>Wisdom must be generated, cultivated, and gradually developed. There are
many stages or levels of wisdom, and there are numerous important Pali
terms used to refer to wisdom: either to specific stages of wisdom,
specific attributes of wisdom, or specific origins of wisdom. Here is a
list of some of these terms: <em>pariññā</em> (’thorough knowledge’), <em>ñāṇa</em>
(’clear knowledge’), <em>vijjā</em> (’true knowledge’), <em>aññā</em> (’gnosis’),
<em>abhiññā</em> (’supreme knowledge’), <em>buddhi</em> (’intelligence’), <em>bodhi</em>
(’awakening’), and <em>sambodhi</em> (’full awakening’). {40}</p>
<p>The distinction between perception (<em>saññā</em>), consciousness (<em>viññāṇa</em>),
and wisdom (<em>paññā</em>) was explained in chapter 1. There is, however, one
point to reiterate here:</p>
<p>Consciousness (<em>viññāṇa</em>) is a <em>pariññeyya-dhamma</em>: it is something to
be recognized and understood; our only task is to understand it as it
is. We have no responsibility beyond this, because no matter what we do,
consciousness functions according to its own nature.</p>
<p>Generally speaking, perception (<em>saññā</em>) is also a <em>pariññeyya-dhamma</em>:
something to simply understand as it is.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn22-1"><a href="#fn-fn22">22</a></sup> Perception resulting from
unwholesome mental proliferation (<em>papañca-saññā</em>), or ’defiled
perception’ (<em>kilesa-saññā</em>), however, is a <em>pahātabba-dhamma</em>:
something to be abandoned or eliminated.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn23-1"><a href="#fn-fn23">23</a></sup> Perception supportive to
understanding and to fostering wholesome qualities is a
<em>bhāvetabba-dhamma</em>: something to be cultivated, increased, and
perfected.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn24-1"><a href="#fn-fn24">24</a></sup></p>
<p>Wisdom (<em>paññā</em>) is a <em>bhāvetabba-dhamma</em>: something to be trained and
developed, until it can be used to completely dispel delusion and
ignorance.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn25-1"><a href="#fn-fn25">25</a></sup></p>
<h3 id="pathways-of-cognition"><a class="header" href="#pathways-of-cognition">Pathways of Cognition</a></h3>
<p>According to Buddha-Dhamma, ’contact’ (<em>phassa</em>) is the source of
knowledge: all forms of understanding arise as a result of contact, or
they arise at the point of contact (see
Note <a href="#note-contact-consciousness">Contact and Consciousness</a>).<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn26-1"><a href="#fn-fn26">26</a></sup> That is, knowledge is
dependent on cognition, whereby data passes through the six ’spheres’
(<em>āyatana</em>) or doorways (<em>dvāra</em>) of cognition: the eye, ear, nose,
tongue, body, and mind.</p>
<div class="note">
<p><span class="caption">Contact and Consciousness</span><a id="note-contact-consciousness"></a></p>
<blockquote>
<p>Technically speaking, contact (<em>phassa</em>) is not a condition for the
knowledge referred to as ’consciousness’ (<em>viññāṇa</em>), because
consciousness is one of the factors involved for the arising of
contact. For this reason, these sutta passages cited above do not
state that <em>phassa</em> is the cause for the arising of the consciousness
aggregate (<em>viññāṇa-khandha</em>); rather, they state that materiality and
mentality (<em>nāma-rūpa</em>) is the cause for its arising. The expression
in English, ’contact is the source of all knowledge’, is still valid,
however, since the term ’source’ can refer both to ’cause’ and a
’place from which something is obtained’.</p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>If one considers the six sense spheres as the starting points of
cognition, one can classify knowledge into two kinds:</p>
<ol>
<li>
<p>Knowledge obtained by way of the five sense doors (<em>pañca-dvāra</em>):
the eye, ear, nose, tongue, and body. This refers to basic forms of
knowledge, i.e. knowing visual forms (including colours), sounds,
smells, tastes, and tangibles (<em>phoṭṭhabba</em>; these can be summarized
as: ’earth’ (<em>paṭhavī</em>): the state of solidity; ’fire’ (<em>tejo</em>):
heat or temperature; and ’wind’ (<em>vāyo</em>): movement, vibration, and
tension). {41}</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Knowledge obtained by way of the mind door (<em>mano-dvāra</em>),<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn27-1"><a href="#fn-fn27">27</a></sup> i.e.
knowing mind objects (<em>dhammārammaṇa</em>; or <em>dhamma</em>, for short). This
refers to all of those things known and reflected upon by the mind.
For the sake of clarity, the Abhidhamma divides these into five
kinds:<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn28-1"><a href="#fn-fn28">28</a></sup></p>
<ol>
<li>
<p>The feeling aggregate (<em>vedanā-khandha</em>). (This refers to
feeling as something that is known by the mind. The following
four factors should be understood in the same way.)</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>The perception aggregate (<em>saññā-khandha</em>).</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>The volitional formations aggregate (<em>saṅkhāra-khandha</em>).</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Anidassana-appaṭigha-rūpa</em>: invisible, intangible form included
in the classification of mind objects. This is also referred to
as refined form (<em>sukhuma-rūpa</em>), and it comprises sixteen
factors: the element of cohesion (<em>āpo-dhātu</em>); femininity
(<em>itthī-bhāva</em>); masculinity (<em>purisa-bhāva</em>); physical basis of
the mind (<em>hadaya-rūpa</em>); life-faculty (<em>jīvitindriya</em>);
material quality of nutrition (<em>āhāra-rūpa</em>; nutritive essence
– <em>ojā</em>); space (<em>ākāsa</em>); bodily communication
(<em>kāya-viññatti</em>); verbal communication (<em>vacī-viññatti</em>); the
three qualities of alterability (<em>vikāra-rūpa</em>): levity
(<em>lahutā</em>), softness (<em>mudutā</em>; malleability), and wieldiness
(<em>kammaññatā</em>); and the four material qualities of salient
features (<em>lakkhaṇa-rūpa</em>): growth or enlargement (<em>upacaya</em>),
continuity (<em>santati</em>); decay (<em>jaratā</em>); and disintegration
(<em>aniccatā</em>).</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>The unconditioned element (<em>asaṅkhata-dhātu</em>), i.e. Nibbāna.</p>
</li>
</ol>
</li>
</ol>
<p>Later Abhidhamma texts present a more detailed analysis of mind objects
(<em>dhammārammaṇa</em>), dividing them into six kinds:<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn29-1"><a href="#fn-fn29">29</a></sup></p>
<ol>
<li>
<p>Five sense organs (<em>pasāda</em>), i.e. the clarity or sensitivity which
acts as the cognitive medium in regard to the eye, ear, nose,
tongue, and body.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Sixteen kinds of refined materiality (<em>sukhuma-rūpa</em>), mentioned in
the previous list (D).</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Heart (<em>citta</em>; ’mind’).</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Mental concomitants (<em>cetasika</em>); this corresponds to the feeling
aggregate, perception aggregate, and volitional formations aggregate
mentioned in the previous list.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Nibbāna.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Paññatti</em>: established names, labels, and designations, for
example: ’earth’, ’mountain’, ’car’, ’person’, ’North’, ’South’,
’cave’, ’pond’, ’island’, ’peninsula’, etc. These names and
designations may refer to things that truly exist or to things that
only exist in the imagination. Whether the things they refer to
exist or not, however, these names and designations are timeless and
indestructible. A hole going deep into a mountain is called a
’cave’. Wherever and whenever such a hole appears, it is
consistently called a ’cave’. The term ’cave’ refers to only this
specific phenomenon. The actual cave itself (and every cave),
however, is subject to caving in or being filled in; it is subject
to change and transformation.</p>
<p>Similarly, that which is called ’perception’ arises and passes away,
and is subject to disintegration, but the label ’perception’ does
not disappear. Wherever and whenever such a phenomenon arises, it is
consistently called ’perception’ (if there is a conventional
agreement to use this term). The body is subject to decay, but the
term ’body’ remains constant. Wherever such phenomena arise, they
are referred to by such designations. Those people who do not
understand this subject of conventional designations may be puzzled
or confused when they encounter such phrases as ’feeling is
impermanent’ or ’perception is impermanent’; they are unable to
distinguish whether impermanence here refers to the actual
phenomenon or to its designation. {42}</p>
</li>
</ol>
<p>Such highly technical explanations may be difficult to understand. On
some occasions, it is especially difficult to distinguish between
certain kinds of knowledge obtained by way of the mind-door and
knowledge obtained by way of the five senses. Yet these distinctions are
very important. For example, when one hears someone else speaking, the
knowledge by way of the five senses (in this case, the ’doorway’ of the
ear) is simply an awareness of sound – one simply hears a sound. One
does not yet understand the meaning of the words. Subsequent
understanding is knowledge arising at the mind-door. Likewise, when one
sees a rooftop, the knowledge by way of the five senses (the ’doorway’
of the eye) is simply an awareness of a shape or colour. Knowing the
condition of ’covering’ and ’sheltering’, and knowing that the object is
a roof, is achieved at the mind-door.</p>
<p>Knowledge by way of the mind, or the knowledge of mental objects
(<em>dhammārammaṇa</em>), encompasses a very wide range. It includes both the
mental awareness of data obtained by way of the five senses and
knowledge exclusive to the mind itself. To clarify this matter, here is
another format for classifying the knowledge obtained by way of the
mind-door (<em>mano-dvāra</em>):</p>
<ol>
<li>
<p>Objects (i.e. ’emotions’) specific to the mind, e.g.: love, anger,
confusion, mental clarity, happiness, unhappiness, grief,
depression, loneliness, delight, courage, fear, etc.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Conceptions pertaining to the past, of objects that were cognized by
way of the five senses.</p>
</li>
<li>