Author: Adrian Thompson Contact: a.thompson@northwestern.edu
- python >3.7
- numpy
- scipy
- mpmath
- multiprocessing
- Global constants (SM parameters, unit conversions, etc.) are stored in
constants.pyand have the naming conventionGLOBAL_CONSTANT_NAME - All units in alplib are in MeV, cm, kg, and s by default unless specifically stated, for example densities given in g/cm^2.
The Material class is a container for the physical constants and parameters pertaining to the materials used in experimental beam targets and detectors.
There are a number of material parameters stored in a JSON dictionary in data/mat_params.json, named according to the chemical name of the material, e.g. 'Ar' or
'CsI'. One would initialize a detector or beam target, for instance, in the following way;
target_DUNE = Material('C')
det_DUNE = Material('Ar')
Further specifications for the volumes of the target/detector can also be specified for each instance that you may be interested in. The optional parameters
fiducial_mass (in kg)
det_DUNE = Material('Ar', fiducial_mass=50000)
All the material properties are set in data/mat_params.json with a JSON format for each entry; for example, in the case of cesium iodide we have
"CsI":
{
"iso": 2,
"z": [55, 53],
"n": [78, 74],
"frac": [0.5, 0.5],
"lattice_const": 4.503,
"cell_volume": 22.82,
"atomic_radius": [2.0, 2.0],
"m": [123.8e3, 118.21e3],
"density": 4.51,
"er_min": 4.25e-3,
"er_max":26e-3,
"bg": 5e-3,
"bg_un": 0.05
},
You can extend mat_params.json with any material using this format.
The class fluxes.AxionFlux is a super-class that can be inherited by any class that models a specific instance of a source of axion flux. It's most basic members are the axion_energy and axion_flux arrays, which together make a list of pairs of energies (in MeV) and event weights (in counts/second). Any class that inherits AxionFlux should populate axion_energy and axion_flux during its simulation routine - this flux class can then be passed to event generators (e.g. fluxes.PhotonEventGenerator()) to generate scattering or decay event weights at a detector module.
AxionFlux also has a default propagate method (which can be modified depending on the specific instance of the class inheriting AxionFlux) that looks at AxionFlux.lifetime() to propagate the flux weights to the detector.
There are several fluxes that inherit AxionFlux as a super class; for example, for isotropic fluxes we have FluxPrimakoffIsotropic (Primakoff ALP production from a photon flux in material), FluxComptonIsotropic (Compton ALP production from a photon flux in material), FluxBremIsotropic (ALP-bremsstrahlung from electron or positron fluxes in material), FluxResonanceIsotropic and FluxPairAnnihilationIsotropic (resonant and associated e+ e- annihilation into ALP production from a positron flux in material), FluxNuclearIsotropic (ALP production from nuclear decays), FluxChargedMeson3BodyIsotropic (ALP production from charged meson 3-body decay), and FluxPi0Isotropic (ALP production from pi0 decay at rest).
Each class will have its own initialization arguments in addition to those inherited from AxionFlux. For example, to simulate an ALP flux from Primakoff production of 100 MeV gammas in a tungsten target, we can use the following
wtarget = Material("W")
gammas = np.array([100.0, 1.0e12]) # 100 MeV, 1e12 photons / s
flux_p = FluxPrimakoffIsotropic(photon_flux=gammas, target=wtarget, det_dist=4.0, det_length=0.2,
det_area=0.04, axion_mass=0.1, axion_coupling=1e-5, n_samples=1000)
flux_p.simulate() # simulate the production flux; flux_p.axion_flux is now populated with weights
flux_p.propagate() # propagate gammas to detector, taking into account decays
One can then pass this simulated flux to an event generator class from generators.py to simulate the spectrum at the detector.
One can use PhotonEventGenerator and ElectronEventGenerator to simulate the detection channels of the ALPs in material.
For example, suppose we want to detect the ALPs we simulated in flux_p above. We may use
gen = PhotonEventGenerator(flux_p, Material("Ar"))
gen.decays(days_exposure=100, threshold=5.0)
This will calculate the weights for decays a -> gamma gamma coming from the flux per second into the detector in flux_p, normalized to 100 days of exposure of a liquid argon detector with a threshold of 5 MeV. To access the individual weights per ALP in the flux, use
weights = gen.decay_weights
Alternatively, one can perform a 2-body decay monte carlo to obtain the Lorentz vectors of each decay photon, and the event-by-event weights, like so:
p41, p42, wgt = gen.simulate_decay_4vectors(days_exposure=100, n_samples=10000)
One can then use the methods in the LorentzVector() class to access the energies, angles, etc. of the outgoing 4-vectors. For example, we can create numpy arrays of the individual energies and polar angles like so,
energies1 = np.array([p4.energy() for p4 in p41])
energies2 = np.array([p4.energy() for p4 in p42])
angles1 = np.array([p4.theta() for p4 in p41])
angles2 = np.array([p4.theta() for p4 in p42])
where the +z axis points along the beam axis of the flux class.
The super class MatrixElement2 and its inheritors offers a way to embed any 2->2 scattering process 1 2 -> 3 4. One simply needs to input the masses m1, m2, m3, m4, and the __call__ method will return the squared matrix element as a function of the Mandelstam variables s and t. Below we outline the monte carlo simulation algorithm for 2-to-2 scattering as an example;
As an example, in generators.py we call the class Scatter2to2MC from cross_section_mc.py. Generating samples should look like this;
mc.lv_p1 = LorentzVector(Ea0, 0.0, 0.0, np.sqrt(Ea0**2 - self.mx**2))
mc.lv_p2 = LorentzVector(self.det_m, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0)
mc.scatter_sim()
cosines, dsdcos = mc.get_cosine_lab_weights()
e3, dsde = mc.get_e3_lab_weights()
where we have made use of the LorentzVector class.
First we need the FluxBremIsotropic class from alplib.fluxes, and if we are interested in looking for visible energy events in a detector, we also need classes from generators.py like ElectronEventGenerator.
from alplib.fluxes import FluxBremIsotropic
from alplib.generators import ElectronEventGenerator
It is usually a good idea to define a set of constants for our setup, so I aggregate all the experimental parameters I want to assume for NA64 (and you may choose your own naming convention):
beam_energy = 1e5 # 100 GeV
eot = 2.84e11
days = 365
na64_dump = Material("W")
na64_ecal = Material("Pb")
ecal_length = 1.0 # meters
hcal_length = 6.5 # meters
hcal_area = 0.6*0.6 # 60cm across
ecal_dist = 43.3 # meters: beam d
ecal_area = 0.23 # ecal area in m^2; 43cm across
dump_length = 2.0 # meters
ecal_thresh = 1.0e3 # check
na64_e_flux = np.array([[beam_energy, eot/S_PER_DAY/days]])
det_am = na64_ecal.m[0] # mass of target atom in MeV
ecal_n = 100.0 * MEV_PER_KG / det_am
Now we can write a function to get the flux energies and weights with these inputs:
def get_flux(ma, g, use_loop=False):
flux_brem = FluxBremIsotropic(na64_e_flux, target=na64_dump, det_dist=ecal_dist, det_length=ecal_length,
det_area=ecal_area, target_length=dump_length, axion_mass=ma,
axion_coupling=g, loop_decay=use_loop, is_isotropic=False, n_samples=10000)
flux_brem.simulate()
flux_brem.propagate()
return np.array(flux_brem.axion_energy), np.array(flux_brem.axion_flux)
Here the use_loop option can account for the case where we want our ALP to include an effective coupling to photons through an electron loop. If we set use_loop=True this would permit decays to 2 photons for masses below twice the electron mass (albeit at 1-loop, this is relatively suppressed).
we can also write a get_events() function that takes care of propagating the flux to a detector:
def get_events(ma, g, use_loop=False):
flux_brem = FluxBremIsotropic(na64_e_flux, target=na64_dump, det_dist=ecal_dist, det_length=ecal_length,
det_area=ecal_area, target_length=dump_length, axion_mass=ma,
axion_coupling=g, loop_decay=use_loop, is_isotropic=False, n_samples=10000)
flux_brem.simulate()
flux_brem.propagate()
events_gen = ElectronEventGenerator(flux_brem, na64_ecal)
events_gen.compton(ge=g, ma=ma, ntargets=ecal_n, days_exposure=days, threshold=ecal_thresh)
events_gen.decays(days_exposure=days, threshold=ecal_thresh)
return events_gen.axion_energy, events_gen.decay_weights + events_gen.scatter_weights
In both get_events() and get_flux() functions we are returning numpy arrays of the monte carlo energies and weights, which we can then pass into a histogram object like pyplot's hist(). For example,
ma = 0.5
g = 1e-5
energies, flux_wgts = get_flux(ma, g, use_loop=True)
plt.hist(1e-3*energies, weights=flux_wgts, histtype='step', bins=100, label="lives")
plt.xlabel(r"$E$ [GeV]")
plt.yscale('log')
plt.show()